Computers World

installing intel processor socket 775

2008-10-10T13:04:00.001-07:00

With Intel's latest processor socket 775 formfactor, Intel has accomplished a couple of noteworthy things. The first was to substantially reduce the complexity and cost of manufacturing its processors; removing the vulnerable and delicate interface pins from the bottom of CPUs meant that manufacturing losses and customer returns both dropped significantly for Intel. The second accomplishment was, unfortunately, to increase the complexity and risk involved in installing one of the new 775 processors into a motherboard.

By removing the pins from each CPU, Intel off loaded the responsibility of adding interface pins to motherboard manufacturers (who also now have to deal with returned merchandise and angry customers with bent socket pins). This is a bad thing for Intel users in general, as now the motherboard is the most likely component to be damaged during an installation gone bad, and compared to Intel many motherboard manufacturers are notoriously unreliable in providing replacement parts.

Here at PCSTATS, we had our share of troubles and frustration with the new installation method before we got completely used to it, so we thought we'd run off a quick guide illustrating the procedure for the benefit of our readers. If you are planning on building a Intel based computer anytime soon, bookmark this article now...!

The LGA 775 processor chip and socket

As you probably know by now, Intel processors have no pins at all. Instead they merely have the electrical contacts where the pins (which are now built into the socket on the motherboard) will touch. While the lack of pins makes these chips much less fragile, the bottom of the processor should not be touched, as the contacts can be damaged.

On the left above is the previous socket 478 style Intel processor, at right the current socket 775 style pinless processor. In all other physical respects the new chips are unremarkable, so let's move on to the socket.

As you can see, the array of pins which connect the processor to the motherboard are now attached to the socket and they are very fragile and easily bent. All socket 775 motherboards feature the metal shim (load plate) pictured above, which serves the dual purpose of locking down the processor once it is installed and protecting the pins from harm when it is not. Most boards also implement a protective plastic cover which fits over the load plate when no processor is present, hiding the pins completely. The lever secures the shim in place, holding the processor when it is installed.

It is extremely important that the processor be installed slowly, carefully and vertically into the socket, and removed the same way. Any careless handling will damage the pins, and may leave you with a useless motherboard.

Now its time to describe exactly how to install one of these chips correctly. It's not the hardest thing in the world, but it pays to be careful and follow a predetermined set of steps.

Installing Pentium 4 Processor in the 478-pin

2008-10-10T13:00:00.000-07:00

The Boxed Pentium 4 Processor in the 478-pin Package
Processor Overview
The Intel Pentium 4 processor is based on the Intel® NetBurst™ micro-architecture and includes several new performance enhancing features.

Hyper-Threading Technology
The Pentium 4 processor supporting Hyper-Threading Technology ^†increases processor efficiency by executing more than one instruction thread at a time. This technology is designed to deliver superior performance with multi-threaded applications and in multi-tasking environments.
Hyper Pipelined Technology
A deeper pipeline enables instructions inside the processor to be queued and executed at a much faster rate, and allows the Pentium 4 processor to achieve the world's highest clock speeds for desktop PCs.
Streaming SIMD Extensions 2
Streaming SIMD Extensions 2 consists of 144 new instructions including SIMD double precision floating point, SIMD 128-bit integer, and new cache and memory management instructions. Streaming SIMD Extensions 2 enhances performance to accelerate video, speech, encryption, imaging, and the most demanding of Internet computing, and non-threaded workstation applications.
Streaming SIMD Extensions 3
Streaming SIMD Extensions 3 consists of 13 new instructions including 5 Complex Arithmetic evaluations, 2 Improved Load/Stores for improved performance, 4 Horizontal evaluations to improve speed of evaluations, and 2 Improved Hyper Threading instructions.
800-MHz/533-MHz/400-MHz Intel® NetBurst™ Micro-Architecture System Bus
Multiple system bus transfer rates that help speed the transfer of information from the processor to the rest of the system, improving throughput and performance. Also provides the user with the flexibility to take advantage of higher system memory bandwidth.
Advanced Dynamic Execution
Extends the Dynamic Execution features found in the previous generation P6 micro-architecture. Improved branch prediction accelerates the flow of work to the processor and helps overcome the deeper pipeline. Very deep out-of-order speculative execution carries out over 100 instructions speculatively, ensuring that the processor's superscalar execution units remain busy, improving overall execution.
Enhanced Floating Point/Multimedia Unit
A 128-bit floating-point port and a second port for data movement enable smooth lifelike 3D and graphics.
Execution Trace Cache
Advanced L1 instruction cache removes decoder pipeline latency, and caches "decoded" instructions, thus improving efficiency and hit rate to cached instructions. The 12 Kµop portion of the L1 cache supplies decoded instructions into the processor pipeline. There is also an 8 KB data portion of L1 cache.
Rapid Execution Engine
Integer Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) clocked at twice the core frequency provides four ALUs of computing bandwidth and allows lower latency execution increasing performance for certain integer operations.

The Intel NetBurst micro-architecture enables the Pentium 4 processor to achieve breakthrough performance for visual computing, concurrent application environments, and the future of the Internet.

Included with the Boxed Pentium 4 processor in the 478-pin Package

Intel Pentium 4 processor in the 478-pin package
Intel Designed Thermal Solution (includes high quality variable speed fan heatsink and clip assembly)
Thermal interface material (attached to the heatsink or thermal grease applied with applicator)
Installation Instructions and Certificate of Authenticity
Intel® Inside logo label

The Pentium 4 processor in the 478-pin package refers to Pentium 4 processors in the 478-pin Flip-Chip Pin Grid Array (FC-PGA2) package with an Integrated Heat Spreader (IHS) that aids in heat dissipation to a properly attached fan heatsink.

Figures 1 and 2: Pentium® 4 processor 478-pin FC-PGA2 Package

The boxed processor fan heatsink uses a variable speed fan that increases in speed (and noise level) as the air temperature entering the fan increases. The fan operates at a set speed until the inlet air temperature (or the air temperature entering the fan heatsink) exceeds the lower set point (see Table 1). The fan speed will continue to increase linearly until the inlet air temperature reaches the higher set point (see Table 1). At temperatures above the higher set point, the fan will operate at its highest speed and noise level.

System integrators should design systems that ensure that the air temperature around the boxed processor fan heatsink (or internal chassis temperature) is kept below the lower set point, for the lowest fan speed and noise level. System integrators must never allow the inlet air temperature to exceed the higher set point. The recommended maximum internal chassis temperature for systems based on the boxed Intel Pentium 4 processor 2.80 GHz (and below) is 40°C. For systems based on the boxed Intel Pentium 4 processor 3 GHz (and above), the recommended maximum internal chassis temperature is 38°C. (Note: Set points vary on boxed fan heatsinks due to processor technology.)

Selecting the correct chassis and verifying proper thermal management is critical for integrating a high quality boxed Intel Pentium 4 processor-based system (see Thermal Management for Systems based on Boxed Pentium 4 processors in the 478-pin Package for information about thermal management considerations and the Pentium 4 processor Datasheet for details on the Thermal Monitor feature). Figure 2 shows the various internal chassis temperatures and the specific impact on the system noise and performance.

Table 1. Boxed Processor Variable Fan Heatsink Set Points

For Boxed Intel® Pentium® 4 Processors 2.80 GHz (and below):
Internal Chassis Temperature (°C)	Boxed Processor Fan Heatsink Set Points
X < = 33¹	Lower Set Point: Fan speed constant at lowest fan speed. Recommended temperature for nominal operating environment.
Y = 40	Recommended maximum internal chassis temperature for boxed Intel Pentium 4 processor-based systems.
Z > = 43¹	Higher Set Point: Fan speed constant at highest fan speed.
For Boxed Intel® Pentium® 4 Processors 3 GHz (and above):
Internal Chassis Temperature (°C)	Boxed Processor Fan Heatsink Set Points
X < = 32¹	Lower Set Point: Fan speed constant at lowest fan speed. Recommended temperature for nominal operating environment.
Y = 38	Recommended maximum internal chassis temperature for boxed Intel Pentium 4 processor-based systems.
Z > = 40¹	Higher Set Point: Fan speed constant at highest fan speed

¹ Set point variance is approximately ±1°C from fan heatsink to fan heatsink.

Figure 2. Internal Chassis Temperature Affect On Boxed Processor Variable Speed Fan Heatsink Noise

Identifying a Boxed Processor
Boxed processor test specifications (or S-Specs) marked on the integrated heat spreader of the Pentium 4 processor identify specific information about the processor. Using the S-Spec Reference Table and the information marked on the processor, a system integrator can verify the appropriate speed rating, stepping, lot number, serial number and other important information about the processor. The numbers marked on the processor should match the numbers on the processor box label (see Figure 3).

Once the boxed processor is installed into a system, the fan heatsink covers the integrated heat spreader and all the markings on the processor. The sticker on the box of the boxed processor (that has the processor speed information, test specification, and lot number) can be removed and placed on the inside of the system chassis that the processor is installed into (see Figure 4). This will allow quick access to the information that is no longer available on the top of the processor when the heatsink is installed. If a system's processor is later upgraded or replaced causing the sticker inside the chassis to have incorrect information, the sticker should be replaced, removed or visibly marked as obsolete to avoid confusion.

Figure 3. Processor Box Label

Figure 4. Remove Processor Box Label and Place Inside System Chassis

Platform Component Selection

Motherboard Selection
Also, the Pentium 4 processor in the 478-pin package must be used in a motherboard with a 478-pin micro PGA (mPGA478B) socket. It is important to verify that the specific motherboard model and revision support the specific Pentium 4 processor speed being used. A BIOS upgrade may be required in order to properly recognize and initialize the latest stepping of the Pentium 4 processor. Motherboards must meet the electrical and mechanical specifications of the Pentium 4 processor, as documented in the Datasheet.

Motherboard Compatibility for Pentium 4 Processors Supporting Hyper-Threading Technology:
For additional information on integrating systems based on the Pentium 4 processor supporting Hyper-Threading Technology, refer to the Integration Overview for Systems Based on the Intel Pentium 4 Processor Supporting Hyper-Threading Technology.

Motherboard Support for Pentium 4 Processors with 533-MHz or 800-MHz System Bus:
Ensure that you are using a motherboard that supports the 533-MHz or 800-MHz system bus respectively. Failure to use an appropriate motherboard may result in unstable system operation as well as performance degradation and may result in running your processor out of specification, which will void your processor warranty. Consult your motherboard manufacturer for compatibility

Motherboards that support the Pentium 4 processor and are based on the ATX form factor specification utilize power supplies that follow the ATX12V power supply design guide. Similarly, microATX form factor motherboards that support the Pentium 4 processor utilize power supplies that follow the ATX12V or SFX12V power supply design guides. Both the ATX12V and SFX12V power supply design guides are available on the the Form Factors website ^†.

^† This link will take you off of the Intel Web site. Intel does not control the content of the destination Web Site.

Motherboards intended for system integrators will include the processor retention mechanism (Figure 5). Four holes located around the processor socket allow the retention mechanism to attach to the motherboard. System integrators should follow motherboard installation documentation when installing the processor retention mechanism on the motherboard and integrating the motherboard into a chassis. General installation procedures are described in Integrating Systems Based on Intel Pentium 4 processors in the 478-pin Package.

Figure 5. Retention Mechanism Included with Motherboards

Fan Heatsink Support
The boxed processor includes a high quality unattached fan heatsink specifically designed to provide sufficient cooling to the Pentium 4 processor when used in a suitable chassis environment. The fan power cable must be connected to the motherboard power header as shown in the processor installation notes (included in the boxed processor package).

The motherboard 3-pin header uses two pins to supply +12V (power) and GND (ground). The fan uses the third pin to transmit fan-speed information to motherboards that support fan-speed detection. The motherboard must have a 3-pin fan power header located close to the socket.
Note: Refer to your motherboard manual for the location of the power header.

Chassis Selection
Systems based on the Pentium 4 processor in the 478-pin package must use chassis that comply with the ATX specification (revision 2.01 or later) or microATX specification (revision 1.0 or later), depending on the motherboard form factor. Intel recommends system integrators using ATX form factor motherboards to choose a chassis that complies with the ATX specification (revision 2.01 or later). Likewise, system integrators using microATX form factor motherboards should choose a chassis that complies with the microATX specification (1.0 or later).

The chassis must also support a lower internal ambient temperature than many standard ATX and microATX desktop chassis. The internal chassis temperature for systems based on Pentium 4 processors 2.80 GHz (and below) should be maintained at 40°C (or lower) for chassis in the maximum expected external ambient (which is typically 35°C). The internal chassis temperature for systems based on Pentium 4 processors 3 GHz (and above) should be maintained at 38°C (or lower) for chassis in the maximum expected external ambient (which is typically 35°C). Most chassis designed for the Pentium 4 Processor use extra internal chassis fans to improve airflow. Intel tests chassis with the boxed Intel Pentium 4 Processor and the Intel® Desktop Boards for minimum thermal requirements. The tested chassis list can be located at http://www.intel.com/go/chassis. These chassis meet Intel's processor specifications with the Intel Desktop Boards. It is strongly recommended that system integrators perform thermal testing on the chassis selected for each configuration of Pentium 4 processor-based systems, even when using a chassis on the tested chassis list.

Chassis that ship with installed power supplies must support either the ATX12V or SFX12V design guidelines.

Power Supply Selection
Power supplies must comply with either the ATX12V or SFX12V design guidelines (see the Form Factors website ^†for details) and supply additional current on the 12V power rail through a new 2x2 connector. Also, additional 3.3V and 5V current is supplied through a separate 1x6 connector, on the ATX12V power supplies (SFX12V power supplies do not have the separate 1x6 connector). All Pentium 4 processor-based systems require the standard 2x10, 20-pin ATX power connector as well as the 2x2, 4-pin 12V connector. Most ATX form factor-based motherboards with fully loaded system configurations may also require the 1x6, 6-pin connector. Consult the motherboard documentation to determine power supply requirements.

^† This link will take you off of the Intel Web site. Intel does not control the content of the destination Web Site.

Integrating Systems Based on Pentium 4 processors in the 478-pin Package
Motherboards supporting the boxed Pentium 4 processor include a manual with installation instructions. Consult this manual in addition to the boxed processor manual before building a Pentium 4 processor-based system. In addition, the following information can aid system integrators in successfully integrating a system based on the boxed Pentium 4 processor in the 478-pin package.

Note: When integrating a Pentium 4 processor-based system, be sure to take the proper electrostatic discharge (ESD) precautions. Consider using ground straps, gloves, ESD mats, or other protective measures to avoid damaging the processor and other electrical components in the system.

Motherboard and Retention Mechanism Installation
Once the motherboard has been installed in the chassis, install the retention mechanism (provided by the motherboard manufacturer) to the motherboard. As a supplement to the motherboard manufacturer's installation instructions, use the following instructions for installing the retention mechanism:

Remove the four white pushpins (A in Figure 6) from the retention mechanism, if installed (Figure 7). The four black fasteners (B in Figure 6) should remain fully seated in the retention mechanism as shown in Figure 8.
Place the retention mechanism on the motherboard, aligning it with the four holes located adjacent to the processor socket (Figure 9). Note that the retention mechanism is symmetrical.
Secure the retention mechanism to the motherboard by gently pressing down on the black fasteners into the four motherboard holes, until they snap into place (Figure 10).
Insert all four of the white pushpins in the black fasteners. Complete the retention mechanism installation by pushing all four of the white pushpins fully into each of the black fasteners (Figure 11).
Gently lift up on the retention mechanism to ensure the base (black fasteners with white pushpins installed) is secured to the motherboard.


Figure 6. White Pushpins (A) and Black Fasteners (B)	Figure 7. Remove White Pushpins from Retention Mechanism	Figure 8. Black Fastener Fully Seated in Retention Mechanism

Figure 9. Align Retention Mechanism to Motherboard Holes	Figure 10. Gently Pressing Down on Black Fasteners into Motherboard Holes	Figure 11. Push Down on White Pushpins to Complete Installation

Processor Installation
As a supplement to the manual provided with the boxed processor, install the processor and fan heatsink in the following manner. Open the processor socket handle (see Figure 12) and carefully align the processor using the pin one markings on the processor and socket for reference (Be careful not to bend any of the processor pins.). The processor pin one marking on the substrate of the FC-PGA2 package should be aligned with pin one mark on the socket (Figure 13). Insert the processor into the socket and close the socket handle.


Figure 12. Open Socket Handle	Figure 13. Align Pin One on Processor to Pin One on Socket

Use the following instructions for installing the fan heatsink:

The boxed Intel Pentium 4 processor will have thermal interface material attached to the bottom of the heatsink shown in Figure 15 (Be careful not to damage the thermal interface material.) or included in an applicator (Figure 15). If included in an applicator with the boxed processor, apply all of the thermal interface material to the center of the processor's integrated heat spreader (see Figure 15).
Align the fan heatsink and clip assembly (A in Figure 14) with the retention mechanism (the fan heatsink is symmetrical) and place it on the processor (as shown in Figure 15). Allow the heatsink base to compress (without rotating or twisting) the thermal interface material over the surface of the processor's integrated heat spreader.
With the clip levers (C in Figure 14) in the upward position, push down on all four clip frame corners (D in Figure 14) to secure the clip frame latches (E in Figure 14) to the retention mechanism hooks (F in Figure 14), as shown in Figure 16.
Note: Make sure the processor fan cable is free from any obstruction and is not trapped under clip frame (B in Figure 14).
Note: It is important to not allow the heatsink to rotate or twist on the processor's integrated heat spreader. Securing the fan heatsink while closing the clip levers will ensure the thermal interface material is not damaged and the processor will operate correctly. Follow these steps, for closing the clip levers and ensuring the thermal interface material is not damaged:
1. Make sure to close the clips levers in opposing directions, one at a time (levers require force to be completely closed), as shown in Figure 17a. First, close the clip lever (1 in Figure 17b), while holding the topside of the fan heatsink with your other hand (A in Figure 17b).
2. Then, close the clip lever (2 in Figure 17c), while holding the topside of the fan heatsink with your other hand (B in Figure 17c).
Once the clip levers are closed, verify that the heatsink is securely retained and that the clip frame latches are properly engaged with the retention mechanism hooks.

Note: When installed, the fan heatsink and clip assembly may cause the motherboard to slightly bend or flex. This provides the proper mechanical support for the processor (with attached fan heatsink and clip assembly) and helps prevent against damage during system shipment.
Lastly, connect the processor fan cable to the motherboard fan power header (Figure 18). Consult the motherboard manual to determine the correct fan header to use.

Figure 14. Fan Heatsink and Clip Assembly Terminology


Figure 15. Align Fan Heatsink and Clip Assembly	Figure 16. Push Down Clip Frame Corners to Secure to Retention Mechanism Hooks

Figure 17a. Close Clip Levers, One at a Time	Figure 17b. Close Clip Lever (1), While Holding the Topside of Fan Heatsink (A)

Figure 17c. Close Clip Lever (2), While Holding the Topside of Fan Heatsink (B)	Figure 18. Connect Fan Cable to Motherboard

Maintaining and Upgrading Systems Based on the Pentium 4 processor in the 478-pin Package

Processor Removal
Every time the heatsink is removed from the processor, it is critical that the thermal interface material be replaced, in order to ensure proper thermal transfer to the boxed processor fan heatsink.

Note: Be sure to take the proper electrostatic discharge (ESD) precautions (ground straps, gloves, ESD mats, or other protective measures) to avoid damaging the processor and other electrical components in the system.

Caution: If you find that considerable force is required to remove the boxed processor assembly, consider wearing gloves to protect your hands and take care to keep your hands away from any metal edges on the chassis when removing components.

Thermal Interface Material Attached to the Heatsink
Intel does not recommend the removal of the thermal interface material located on the bottom of the boxed processor fan heatsink. Removal of this material may cause damage to the processor and will void the boxed processor warranty. If you must remove and re-use the fan heatsink, it will require replacement. Also, if the thermal interface material is at all damaged, you must also replace the fan heatsink. Contact Intel Customer Support to receive a replacement fan heatsink.

Thermal Interface Material in an Applicator
Using the boxed processor without properly applying the included thermal interface material may cause damage to the processor and will void the boxed processor warranty. If you must remove and re-use the fan heatsink, a new application of thermal interface material is required. Contact Intel Customer Support to receive additional thermal interface material in an applicator.

Follow these steps to remove the boxed processor from the system:

Turn off the system, unplug and remove the power cable from the system.
Make the processor area accessible and unplug the processor fan heatsink power cable from the motherboard connector.
Open the clip levers (C in Figure 14), one at a time, in opposing directions. Place the clip levers in the upward position (as shown in Figure 19).
Use a #1, small flathead screwdriver to unhook the clip frame latches (E in Figure 14) from the retention mechanism hooks (F in Figure 14). Steps (5) through (7), will describe the method for unhooking the clip frame latches from the retention mechanism hooks. Note: Be careful not to damage the motherboard, when using the screwdriver.
Starting from 1 in Figure 19, from the topside of the clip frame (B in Figure 14), insert the screwdriver in the small notch near the clip frame corner (D in Figure 14), as shown in Figure 20.

Note: The screwdriver must be positioned carefully between the clip frame and the retention mechanism hook (side view shown in Figure 21). Once in place, the screwdriver must be sitting on top of the clip frame latch.
Push down on the clip frame latch and simultaneously rotate the screwdriver towards the fan heatsink, to unhook the clip frame latch from the retention mechanism hook (side view shown in Figure 22).
Repeat steps (5) through (7) for each clip frame latch until all clip frame latches are no longer attached to the retention mechanism hooks.

Note: Be aware that the clip frame latches may re-attach to the retention mechanism hooks. To prevent this, follow these steps:
1. First, unhook the clip frame latches on the same side of the fan heatsink (1 and 2 in Figure 19).
2. Once 1 and 2 in Figure 19 are unhooked, use your free hand to hold the top of one of the clip frame corners (1 in Figure 19), pulling the clip frame slightly upward (prevents the clip frame latches from re-attaching). Then, unhook the clip frame latch on the other side of the fan heatsink (3 in Figure 19).
3. Now, switch and hold the top of the other clip frame corner (2 in Figure 19) with your free hand, pulling the clip frame slightly upward (prevents the clip frame latches from re-attaching). Then, unhook the clip frame latch on the other side of the fan heatsink (4 in Figure 19).
After all the clip frame latches are unhooked from the retention mechanism hooks, slowly remove the fan heatsink from the processor and retention mechanism. Slightly twisting the heatsink back and forth in the retention mechanism may make the heatsink easier to remove by lessening the surface tension force of thermal interface material between the processor and heatsink.
Once the heatsink is removed, lift the processor socket handle to release the processor pins from the socket. Carefully lift the processor out of the socket (being careful not to bend any of the processor pins).


Figure 19. Sequence for Unhooking Clip Frame Latches	Figure 20. Insert Screwdriver From Topside of Clip Frame, Near Clip Frame Corner

Figure 21. (Side View) Position Screwdriver Between the Retention Mechanism Hook and Clip Frame, While Resting on Clip Frame Latch	Figure 22. (Side View) Push Down on Clip Frame Latch and Rotate Screwdriver Towards Fan Heatsink, to Unhook Clip Frame Latch From Retention Mechanism Hook

Software and Operating System Considerations
The Pentium 4 processor is a completely different micro-architecture from Intel's prior microprocessors that were based on the P6 micro-architecture. The Intel NetBurst micro-architecture supports the entire IA32 instruction set including Intel's MMX™ technology and the Streaming SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) Extension. It also includes 144 more instructions called the Streaming SIMD Extensions 2 or SSE2. The SSE2 instructions complement MMX technology and SSE instructions by supplying increased computation capability support for larger data types (e.g. double-precision floating point numbers and 64-bit packed integer numbers), and several data handling and conversion instructions. In addition, the Intel NetBurst micro-architecture enhances the P6 micro-architecture's floating-point unit.

The Pentium 4 processor supporting Hyper-Threading Technology makes a single physical processor appear as two logical processors; the physical execution resources are shared and the architecture state (which tracks the flow of a program or thread) is duplicated for the two logical processors. For additional information on integrating systems based on the Pentium 4 processor supporting Hyper-Threading Technology, refer to the Integration Overview for Systems Based on the Intel Pentium 4 Processor Supporting Hyper-Threading Technology.

Operating System Support
Nearly all modern operating systems designed for the Intel Architecture have support for the Pentium 4 processor, although some may require specific versions or processor support files. Many Microsoft operating systems like Windows* 98 SE, Windows NT* 4 with Service Pack 5, Windows* 2000, Windows* ME, and Windows* XP support the Pentium 4 processor. Linux* distributions based on the Linux* 2.4 core support the processor. Also, many other vendors have support for the Pentium 4 Processor in their operating systems. System integrators should verify that the operating system they have selected supports the Pentium 4 processor.

Note: Windows XP or certain versions of Linux are required for Hyper-Threading Technology2 support for the Pentium 4 processor. For additional information on integrating systems based on the Pentium 4 processor supporting Hyper-Threading Technology, refer to the Integration Overview for Systems Based on the Intel Pentium 4 Processor Supporting Hyper-Threading Technology.

All operating systems that support the SSE instructions that were first introduced with the Intel® Pentium III processor will also support the SSE2 instructions introduced with the Pentium 4 processor. To experience the power of the SSE2 instructions, it is critical that system integrators install drivers and software that have been optimized for the Pentium 4 processor's SSE2 instructions. For example, for maximum system performance, system integrators using Microsoft operating systems that support DirectX* should load DirectX 8 (or higher).

Software Optimization
With specific drivers that use the SSE2 instructions, graphics accelerators, audio hardware and software, and other system resources can experience substantial performance gain. It is critical that systems also use APIs that use SSE2 instructions to achieve maximum performance. Two examples are Microsoft's DirectX 8 (or higher) and Open GL 1.2 (or higher). Most major graphics accelerator vendors have optimized drivers that use the SSE2 instructions. Graphics card vendors typically highlight support changes with new driver releases. Download and install the latest drivers (dated later than October 2000) from the vendor's Web site. Also, verify that the driver version contains optimization for the Pentium 4 processor.

Many applications also use the SSE2 instructions to experience the breakthrough performance of the Pentium 4 processor. System integrators should contact software vendors to verify support and determine version information.

System performance is greatly affected by proper operating system and driver installation processes. For example, it is important to install the latest Intel® Chipset Software Installation Utility immediately after installing most Microsoft operating systems to ensure proper drivers for the chipset are installed prior to installation of other drivers. System integrators should confirm boxed Intel Pentium 4 processor-based systems are optimally configured and integrated.

Conclusion
Boxed Intel Pentium 4 processor-based systems require proper integration. System integrators that follow the guidelines in this document will experience higher customer satisfaction by providing higher quality systems.

Motherboard Power Connectors

2008-10-10T12:52:00.000-07:00

One of the most important connections in the PC is that between the power supply and the motherboard. It is through this connection (or set of connections) that the various voltages and other signals are sent between these two important devices. (You may want to familiarize yourself with these signals in the section on power supply functions if necessary.) Different form factors use different numbers, types, shapes and sizes of connectors between the power supply and motherboard.

Before we look at the connectors, let's talk a bit about the wires that run between the power supply and the connectors themselves. Pretty much all wires within the PC are made from copper, due to its excellent conductivity, relative low expense, and flexibility. The most important characteristic of a wire is its size, and more specifically, its cross-sectional area. The reason is that the resistance of the wire is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the wire. Thicker wires can carry more current, while the higher resistance of small wires causes heating when they are subjected to a high current, which can be hazardous. Since some wires need to carry more power than others, they are given different thicknesses. In addition, most motherboard connectors have multiple wires for the main voltage levels. This allows for more current, spread out between the different wires.

In the electronics world one standard used for wire thicknesses is American Wire Gauge, or AWG for short. The smaller the AWG number, the larger the wire. These numbers go from 0 (below 0 actually) to 50 and above, but for electronics the most common gauges are between 8 and 24. For motherboard connectors the wires are usually AWG 16, 18, 20 or 22. The table below shows these four sizes and some relevant statistics. You'll notice that the numbers are not linear with the actual size of the wire; AWG 16 wire is almost four times the cross-sectional area of AWG 22 wire.

AWG	Diameter (mm)	Cross-sectional area (mm²)	Approximate Maximum Current (A)	Relative Size
16	1.29	1.31	19
18	1.02	0.82	15
20	0.81	0.52	10
22	0.644	0.33	8

Note: The relative sizes of the four wires shown above (and below) are to scale--meaning that their relative sizes are accurate, but all four are of course enlarged. Also, the current capacities above are approximate maximums and probably not what would be considered safe or reasonable to use in a responsible design.

The other issue of interest to us regarding wires is the color of their insulation. There are standards established for the colors of various wires, to help avoid confusion by those who work with different components and PCs. While not all manufacturers follow these conventions, most do. If they do not, problems can easily occur when a technician sees a black wire, assumes it is a ground (which it usually would be) and then finds out the hard way that it is not.

Below are diagrams that show the configuration of pins for the various connectors used by different form factors between the power supply and motherboard. In each diagram the pins on the power supply connector are shown in their correct orientation. The color of each pin is the color of the wire established as a standard for that pin. Outside the rectangular outline of each connector, next to each pin, is a depiction of the recommended AWG size for the wire going to that pin, and the name of its signal or voltage. Note that the diagrams are not to scale. Note also that they are shown from the perspective of the connector coming from the power supply. For those connectors with two columns of pins, the mating motherboard connector will have its pins in a mirror-image configuration.

Alright, enough with the preamble. Let's look at the connectors, starting with the oldest style. The PC/XT, AT, Baby AT and LPX form factors all use the same pair of 6-wire connectors, usually called "AT Style" connectors. They are typically labeled either "P8" and "P9" (what IBM originally labeled them) or "P1" and "P2". (Actually, the PC/XT form factor omits the +5 V signal on pin #2 of P8, but otherwise is the same.)

The two "AT style" power connectors, P8 (left) and P9.
On the PC/XT, pin #2 of P8 is left unconnected.

The biggest problem with the design IBM used for these power connectors is simply the fact that there are two of them and they are the same size and shape. The connectors are physically keyed so they cannot be inserted backwards, but it is very possible to accidentally swap them. If you do this, you will be putting ground wires where the motherboard expects live power and vice-versa, and the results would be catastrophic. Thus, technicians working with older systems developed the well-known mantra: "black wires together in the middle"! :^)

Proper installation of the two AT-style power connectors to a
motherboard. Notice the four black wires together in the middle.
Incidentally, in this picture the connectors are shown upside-down
from the diagrams above; pin #1 of P8 is at the bottom, pin #6 of P9
at the top. In the background is an ATX-style motherboard connector;
this board can work with either form factor of power supply.
(I don't know what the wire gauge standard is for the AT
connector wires; if somebody out there does, please let me know.)

Original image © Kamco Services
Image used with permission.

Starting with the ATX/NLX power supply, Intel did away with the potential P8/P9 risk by making the main connection a single piece, and using only dissimilar shapes on any other connections between the power supply and motherboard. These are called "ATX Style" connectors. For its regular power supply connection, ATX uses a 20-pin connector with a square hole for pin #1 and round holes for the other 19 pins.

The main ATX/NLX power connector. The wires are AWG 18,
except for the curious pin #11. There, the specification calls for
two AWG 22 wires in the same pin, a +3.3 V signal (orange) and
the default +3.3 V sense signal (brown). If the optional ATX
connector (below) is used, the +3.3 V sense signal here can be
omitted and a regular +3.3 V line put into pin #11.
Note that the connector has 20 pins, but 21 wires.

In addition, the ATX specification (version 2.03 is the latest) defines an auxiliary 6-wire connector (in a 1x6 configuration) and an optional 6-wire connector (in a 2x3 configuration). The auxiliary is intended for motherboards that require a lot of power to run their components (250 W or more); it consists simply of more, thicker (AWG 16) wires for the +3.3 V and +5 V signals. The optional connector carries additional signals, as described here.

The ATX auxiliary (left) and optional connectors. The auxiliary
connector wires are AWG 16. The five wires on the
optional connector are AWG 22. FanM is plain white,
FanC is white with a blue stripe, +3.3 V Sense is white
with a brown stripe, 1394R is white with a black stripe,
and 1394V is white with a red stripe.

The SFX power supply uses a main connector very similar to that of the ATX. The only difference is that pin #18 is omitted, since the SFX specification does not call for a -5 V signal. The SFX optional connector is similar to the ATX one but stripped down; only the Fan ON/OFF signal is provided, on pin #2. There is no auxiliary connector for the SFX supply, which is not intended for use in systems requiring a lot of power.

SFX main and optional connectors. The main connector
wires are AWG 18 except for the pin #11 combination,
each of which are AWG 22. The lone wire on the optional
connector is also AWG 22.

Finally, the WTX form factor. Since WTX is a design intended for workstations and other high end systems, it has a large number of connections to carry the tremendous amount of current that WTX supplies are capable of providing. WTX power supplies therefore have a completely different motherboard interface. The two primary connectors are the 24-pin "main" connector ("P1") and 22-pin "additional" connector ("P2"). Despite P2's name, it is really required by the design, since all the control signals are on it.

WTX main (left) and additional connectors, P1 and P2. The main connector's
wires are AWG 18 except for the two low-power standby signals, which are
AWG 20. Similarly, the additional connector uses AWG 18 for the 12V and
ground power lines, and AWG 22 for the signals and sense lines.

But wait, 40 lines isn't enough; we're not done with WTX yet. :^) In addition to the above, three more connectors are defined. P3 is an eight-pin optional connector (with six pins used) that provides +12 V power to optional power modules or DC-to-DC converters used for additional processors and/or memory within the system. P4 and P5 are six-pin optional connectors used in a similar fashion, to provide additional current for multiple-CPU motherboards or other applications. (Some +12 V power is also provided on P2.) The spec seems to be intentionally flexible (read: vague) regarding how these connectors are to be used.

WTX optional connectors; P3 (left) and P4/P5.
Note that unlike other connectors, the wire color
standard for these +12 V signals is white, not yellow.
All wires are AWG 18.

Note: In addition to the connectors described above, the newer form factors that use soft power also have a connection from the power switch on the case, back to the motherboard.

How to Set Jumpers

2008-10-10T12:50:00.000-07:00

Jumpers and Dip switches are used on motherboards to configure settings according to information that is supplied in the motherboard's user manual.

Close-up views of a block of jumpers ( above left) and two blocks of DIP switches ( above right) found on most motherboards.

Below is an image of an individual jumper showing its top and bottom. The wire crosses over the top. The jumper must be fitted so that the flat bottom makes connection with the surface of the motherboard, as shown in item 2.7 below.

A jumper can cover two metal pins. Two uncovered metal pins can clearly be seen protruding vertically from the surface of the motherboard in the image of a block of jumpers on the left.

When a jumper fits over two pins, it shorts a connection and enables an option - as illustrated and explained in the motherboard's user manual. All of the major motherboard manufacturer's make user manuals availableas downloads, usually in the PDF format.

MSI provides excellent user manuals in the PDF format. and look under the motherboards or mainboards products. At the time of writing (December 2006), the motherboards will be shown as Socket LGA775 for Intel processors, or Socket AM2 for AMD processors.

If a jumper is left hanging on one pin, or two pins are left unjumpered, the option is left open and is therefore not enabled.

DIP switch settings have On and Off switches that operate in the same way as a light switch. The On position is marked. The Off position is usually the opposite of the On position. You should use a screwdriver with a small head, or a pair of tweasers to move the switch into the On or Off postition.

How To Replace The CMOS Battery In Your PC

2008-10-10T12:48:00.001-07:00

How To Replace The CMOS Battery In Your PC

Most PC users don't think much about the CMOS battery until their computer shows signs of losing its BIOS settings on boot up. If you tend to upgrade rather than replace your PC, replacing the CMOS battery every couple of years makes sense.

Likewise, if you purchase a used PC, battery replacement is a good idea unless the PC is less than two years old. It's just one more preventive step you can take to prevent troubles in the future.

If you have never replaced a CMOS battery before, you can find step-by-step instructions below.

In most cases, frequent CMOS errors are a sign of a dead battery. The CMOS battery maintains your settings while your PC is powered off. You can easily replace the battery yourself.

Difficulty Level: medium
Time Required: 10 minutes

Instructions:

Boot your PC and enter its setup mode.
Write down all of the settings from the various BIOS menus. Click this link to learn more about this procedure.
Power off your PC.
Open the case of your computer

Figures 1-2. Undoing the screws on your PC case.

Figure 3. Opening the case of your PC.
Locate the battery on the motherboard.

Figure 4. Battery location on the motherboard.

The layouts of the components differ on different motherboards, so you'll have to consult your motherboard user manual for specifications about the battery and its location.

This is a close-up view of the battery on the motherboard.

Figure 5. Typical CMOS battery.

The most common type of batteries used in modern PCs is coin-shaped lithium/manganese-dioxide battery that looks like a large watch battery.
Obtain a replacement battery from a local or online computer parts dealer.
Remove the old battery.

Figure 6. Removing the old battery.
Replace it with the new one, as shown on the picture below.

Figure 7. Replacing the battery.
Document the date of replacement for future reference.
Replace the case and power on the PC.
Enter the setup mode of your PC.
Reenter the settings you have written down from the various setup menus.

Tips:

Don't forget to observe proper anti-static precautions when working inside the case of your PC.
If you can't see your battery right away, try removing expansion cards or unplugging cables. The majority of newer motherboards use lithium batteries that look like large watch batteries.

If the battery is already dead and you receive messages saying "CMOS checksum error", skip Step 1 and Step 2.

Access/Enter Motherboard BIOS

2008-10-10T12:34:00.000-07:00

Bios Suppliers		Keyboard Commands
ALR Advanced Logic Research, Inc. ® PC / PCI		F2
ALR PC non / PCI		CTRL+ALT+ESC
AMD® (Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.) BIOS		F1
AMI (American Megatrends, Inc.) BIOS		DEL
Award™ BIOS		CTRL+ALT+ESC
Award BIOS		DEL
DTK® (Datatech Enterprises Co.) BIOS		ESC
Phoenix™ BIOS		CTRL+ALT+ESC
Phoenix BIOS		CTRL+ALT+S
Phoenix BIOS		CTRL+ALT+INS
Computer Vendor		Keyboard Commands
Acer®		F1, F2, CTRL+ALT+ESC
ARI®		CTRL+ALT+ESC, CTRL+ALT+DEL
AST®		CTRL+ALT+ESC, CTRL+ALT+DEL
Compaq® 8700		F10
CompUSA®		DEL
Cybermax®		ESC
Dell BIOS web site search links		For models not listed below.
Dell® 400		F3, F1
Dell 4400		F12
Dell Dimension®		F2 or DEL
Dell Inspiron®		F2
Dell Latitude		Fn+F1 (while booted)
Dell Latitude		F2 (on boot)
Dell Optiplex		DEL
Dell Optiplex		F2
Dell Precision™		F2
eMachine®		DEL , F 2
Fujutsu Manuals & BIOS		Manuals & BIOS Download
Gateway® 2000 1440		F1
Gateway 2000 Solo™		F2
HP® (Hewlett-Packard)		F1, F2 (Laptop, ESC)
IBM®		F1
E-pro Laptop		F2
IBM PS/2®		CTRL+ALT+INS after CTRL+ALT+DEL
IBM Thinkpad® (newer)		Windows: Programs-Thinkpad CFG.
Intel® Tangent		DEL
Lenovo(formerly IBM)		Lenovo BIOS Access page
Micron®		F1, F2, or DEL
Packard Bell®		F1, F2, Del
Seanix		DEL
Sony® VAIO		F2
Sony VAIO		F3
Tiger		DEL
Toshiba® 335 CDS		ESC
Toshiba Protege		ESC
Toshiba Satellite 205 CDS		F1
Toshiba Tecra		ESC then F1 or F2
Toshiba Notebook [Newer models]		1. Turn on computer by Holding down power button while pressing the ESC key. The machine will beep, then display: Check System, then press [F1] key. 2. Release ESC key 3. Press F1 key

Motherboards Setup & Installation

2008-10-07T04:50:00.000-07:00

Installing Devices - Motherboards

This isn't real difficult if you follow along with your motherboard manual. The hardest part is setting it into the case. Before you put it in the case however, you must configure the motherboard. This is done with jumpers.

***Modern motherboards such as the Intel P4 and AMD XP/64 motherboards do not have any jumpers that need to be configured to get the system up and running. The odd jumper can be found on some connectors such as sound, usb power and the cmos. These jumpers do not have to be touched tho unless you want to clear your cmos or add a front sound port.

The jumpers on the old boards can be found on the motherboard as little plastic caps. These may be black, yellow, red, white and so on. They come in different colors depending on the company or manufacturer who made the board. You will have to set the clock frequency, CPU voltage and others. The best way to do this is refer to the motherboards manual. I cannot tell you what the jumper settings are for your mother board since there all different. If you do not have a manual, contact the manufacturer or look on there website. Many motherboard makers offer full schematics of there motherboards along with manuals in PDF format..

Picture of motherboard jumpers

-Also prior to installing the motherboard you will want to install the CPU, Heat sink, Fan and System Memory. Look at the procedures for these at: |CPU and Heatsink|Memory|

-If you got the motherboard configured you will need to pay attention to the case. Some cases have removable motherboard trays that aid in the installation of a motherboard, if so you are in good shape. Simply remove by unscrewing it from case. If you haven't you should still be ok, but it could be fiddly in a smaller case.

-Set Up Case-

-First you need to setup the case to except the motherboard. This is done with using brass standoffs or plastic retainers in combination. What you will need to do is set the motherboard in the case and align it. You want to get an idea of how it will fit into the case and the I/O shield on the back of case. Now, when you spot the holes on the case motherboard plate align the motherboard with them. Mark the holes so you will know were to screw your brass standoffs into.

The I/O Shield located on Back of System Case. Your case may have the wrong shield for your motherboard. The motherboard should have a replacement I/O shield with it.

-The reason we want to mark the holes for the brass standoffs is so you don't accidentally put one in the wrong place. If you do there is a chance (BIG) of shorting out the motherboard. If this happens there is a good chance you will need a new motherboard. I don't want to see this happen to you as it happened to others.

	Screwing motherboard in ..snug
	Motherboard in case

-Power-

-Now that motherboard is in case we need to hook up Power. The power connectors can be identified as a 20-Pin for the ATX and the 4 pin 12v square connector.

	ATX 20 pin connector. Note the way the connector is keyed. You can only install one way.
	4 pin 12v connector required for some Athlon XP/64 and Intel P4 processors.

-The connectors simply just plug into the motherboard. The 20 pin connector is a easy one that cant really be done wrong unless you force it. Even if installed wrong you will know something isn't right. The 12volt connector is similar in that it can only be put in the motherboard one way. You will hear them click when they are installed correctly.

Hook up busy light leads

-These leads are easy to hook up. Don't worry if you get them on the wrong post. If so you can always come back and try another way. The best way to do this is refer to the motherboard manual and look at the leads themselves. They are marked as seen below.

Indicator busy light leads

-That wasn't so hard now was it?

Motherboard

2008-10-07T04:47:00.000-07:00

A motherboard is the central or primary printed circuit board (PCB) making up a complex electronic system, such as a modern computer or laptop. It is also known as a mainboard, baseboard, system board, planar board, or, on Apple computers, a logic board, and is sometimes abbreviated casually as mobo.

Most motherboards produced today are designed for so-called IBM-compatible computers, which held over 96% of the global personal computer market in 2005.^[2] Motherboards for IBM-compatible computers are specifically covered in the PC motherboard article.

A motherboard, like a backplane, provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system communicate, but unlike a backplane also contains the central processing unit and other subsystems such as real time clock, and some peripheral interfaces.

A typical desktop computer is built with the microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components on the motherboard. Other components such as external storage, controllers for video display and sound, and peripheral devices are typically attached to the motherboard via edge connectors and cables, although in modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate these "peripherals" into the motherboard.

All of the basic circuitry and components required for a computer to function are onboard the motherboard or are connected with a cable. The most important component on a motherboard is the chipset. It often consists of two components or chips known as the Northbridge and Southbridge, though they may also be integrated into a single component. These chips determine, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the motherboard.

Motherboard

An Acer E360 motherboard made by Foxconn, from 2005, with a large number of integrated peripherals. This board's nForce3 chipset lacks a traditional northbridge.

The motherboard of a typical desktop consists of a large printed circuit board. It holds electronic components and interconnects, as well as physical connectors (sockets, slots, and headers) into which other computer components may be inserted or attached.

Most motherboards include, at a minimum:

sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors (CPUs) are installed^[3]
slots into which the system's main memory is installed (typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips)
a chipset which forms an interface between the CPU's front-side bus, main memory, and peripheral buses
non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS
a clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components
slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset)
power connectors flickers, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards.^[4]

The Octek Jaguar V motherboard from 1993.^[5] This board has 6 ISA slots but few onboard peripherals, as evidenced by the lack of external connectors.

Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly-used input devices, such as PS/2 connectors for a mouse and keyboard. Early personal computers such as the Apple II or IBM PC included only this minimal peripheral support on the motherboard. Occasionally video interface hardware was also integrated into the motherboard; for example on the Apple II, and rarely on IBM-compatible computers such as the IBM PC Jr. Additional peripherals such as disk controllers and serial ports were provided as expansion cards.

Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern motherboards nearly always include heatsinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat.

[edit] CPU sockets

Main article: CPU socket

[edit] Integrated peripherals

Diagram of a modern motherboard, which supports many on-board peripheral functions as well as several expansion slots.

With the steadily declining costs and size of integrated circuits, it is now possible to include support for many peripherals on the motherboard. By combining many functions on one PCB, the physical size and total cost of the system may be reduced; highly-integrated motherboards are thus especially popular in small form factor and budget computers.

For example, the ECS RS485M-M,^[6] a typical modern budget motherboard for computers based on AMD processors, has on-board support for a very large range of peripherals:

disk controllers for a floppy disk drive, up to 2 PATA drives, and up to 6 SATA drives (including RAID 0/1 support)
integrated ATI Radeon graphics controller supporting 2D and 3D graphics, with VGA and TV output
integrated sound card supporting 8-channel (7.1) audio and S/PDIF output
fast Ethernet network controller for 10/100 Mbit networking
USB 2.0 controller supporting up to 12 USB ports
IrDA controller for infrared data communication (e.g. with an IrDA enabled Cellular Phone or Printer)
temperature, voltage, and fan-speed sensors that allow software to monitor the health of computer components

Expansion cards to support all of these functions would have cost hundreds of dollars even a decade ago, however as of April 2007 such highly-integrated motherboards are available for as little as $30 in the USA.

[edit] Peripheral card slots

A typical motherboard of 2007 will have a different number of connections depending on its standard. A standard ATX motherboard will typically have 1x PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card, 2x PCI slots for various expansion cards and 1x PCI-E 1x which will eventually supersede PCI.

A standard Super ATX motherboard will have 1x PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card. It will also have a varying number of PCI and PCI-E 1x slots. It can sometimes also have a PCI-E 4x slot. This varies between brands and models.

Some motherboards have 2x PCI-E 16x slots to allow more than 2 monitors without special hardware or to allow use of a special graphics technology called SLI (for Nvidia) and Crossfire (for ATI). These allow 2 graphics cards to be linked together to allow better performance in intensive graphical computing tasks such as gaming and video editing.

As of 2007, virtually all motherboards come with at least 4x USB ports on the rear with at least 2 connections on the board internally for wiring additional front ports that are built into the computers case. Ethernet is also included now. This is a standard networking cable for connecting the computer to a network or a modem. A sound chip is always included on the motherboard to allow sound to be output without the need for any extra components. This allows computers to be far more multimedia based than before. Cheaper machines now often have their graphics chip built into the motherboard rather than a separate card.

[edit] Temperature and reliability

Motherboards are generally air cooled with heat sinks often mounted on larger chips, such as the northbridge, in modern motherboards. If the motherboard is not cooled properly, then this can cause the motherboard to crash. Passive cooling, or a single fan mounted on the power supply, was sufficient for many desktop computer CPUs until the late 1990s; since then, most have required CPU fans mounted on their heatsinks, due to rising clock speeds and power consumption. Most motherboards have connectors for additional case fans as well. Newer motherboards have integrated temperature sensors to detect motherboard and CPU temperatures, and controllable fan connectors which the BIOS or operating system can use to regulate fan speed.

Some small form factor computers and home theater PCs designed for quiet and energy-efficient operation boast fan-less designs. This typically requires the use of a low-power CPU, as well as careful layout of the motherboard and other components to allow for heat sink placement.

A 2003 study^[7] found that some spurious computer crashes and general reliability issues, ranging from screen image distortions to I/O read/write errors, can be attributed not to software or peripheral hardware but to aging capacitors on PC motherboards. Ultimately this was shown to be the result of a faulty electrolyte formulation.^[8]

For more information on premature capacitor failure on PC motherboards, see capacitor plague.

Motherboards use electrolytic capacitors to filter the DC power distributed around the board. These capacitors age at a temperature-dependent rate, as their water based electrolytes slowly evaporate. This can lead to loss of capacitance and subsequent motherboard malfunctions due to voltage instabilities. While most capacitors are rated for 2000 hours of operation at 105 °C,^[9] their expected design life roughly doubles for every 10 °C below this. At 45 °C a lifetime of 15 years can be expected. This appears reasonable for a computer motherboard, however many manufacturers have delivered substandard capacitors,^{[citation needed]} which significantly reduce life expectancy. Inadequate case cooling and elevated temperatures easily exacerbate this problem. It is possible, but tedious and time-consuming, to find and replace failed capacitors on PC motherboards; it is less expensive to buy a new motherboard than to pay for such a repair.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Form factor

Main article: Comparison of computer form factors

Motherboards are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes ("form factors"), some of which are specific to individual computer manufacturers. However, the motherboards used in IBM-compatible commodity computers have been standardized to fit various case sizes. As of 2007, most desktop computer motherboards use one of these standard form factors—even those found in Macintosh and Sun computers which have not traditionally been built from commodity components.

Laptop computers generally use highly integrated, miniaturized, and customized motherboards. This is one of the reasons that laptop computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair. Often the failure of one laptop component requires the replacement of the entire motherboard, which is usually more expensive than a desktop motherboard due to the large number of integrated components.

[edit] Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire

Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire technology allows 2 or more of the same series graphics cards to be linked together to allow a faster graphics experience. Almost all medium to high end Nvidia cards and most high end ATI cards support the technology.

They both require compatible motherboards. There is an obvious need for 2x PCI-E 16x slots to allow 2 cards to be inserted into the computer. The same function can be acheived in 650i motherboards by NVIDIA, with a pair of x8 slots. Originally, tri-Crossfire was achieved at 8x speeds with 2 16x slots and 1 8x slot albeit at a slower speed. ATI opened the technology up to Intel in 2006 and such all new Intel chipsets support Crossfire.

SLI is a little more proprietary in its needs. It requires a motherboard with Nvidia's own NForce chipset series to allow it to run.

It is important to note that SLI and Crossfire will not usually scale to 2x the performance of a single card when using a dual setup. They also do not double the effective amount of VRAM or memory bandwidth.

[edit] History

Prior to the advent of the microprocessor, a computer was usually built in a card-cage case or mainframe with components connected by a backplane consisting of a set of slots themselves connected with wires; in very old designs the wires were discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed-circuit boards soon became the standard practice. The central processing unit, memory and peripherals were housed on individual printed circuit boards which plugged into the backplane.

During the late 1980s and 1990s, it became economical to move an increasing number of peripheral functions onto the motherboard (see above). In the late 1980s, motherboards began to include single ICs (called Super I/O chips) capable of supporting a set of low-speed peripherals: keyboard, mouse, floppy disk drive, serial ports, and parallel ports. As of the late 1990s, many personal computer motherboards support a full range of audio, video, storage, and networking functions without the need for any expansion cards at all; higher-end systems for 3D gaming and computer graphics typically retain only the graphics card as a separate component.

The early pioneers of motherboard manufacturing were Micronics, Mylex, AMI, DTK, Hauppauge, Orchid Technology, Elitegroup, DFI, and a number of Taiwan-based manufacturers.

Popular personal computers such as the Apple II and IBM PC had published schematic diagrams and other documentation which permitted rapid reverse-engineering and third-party replacement motherboards. Usually intended for building new computers compatible with the exemplars, many motherboards offered additional performance or other features and were used to upgrade the manufacturer's original equipment.

[edit] Bootstrapping using the BIOS

Main article: booting

Motherboards contain some non-volatile memory to initialize the system and load an operating system from some external peripheral device. Microcomputers such as the Apple II and IBM PC used read-only memory chips, mounted in sockets on the motherboard. At power up the central processor would load its program counter with the address of the boot ROM and start executing ROM instructions displaying system information on the screen and running memory checks, which would in turn start loading memory from an external or peripheral device (disk drive) if one isn't available then the computer can perform tasks from other memory stores or displays an error message depending on the model and design of the computer and version of the bios.

Most modern motherboard designs use a BIOS, stored in a EEPROM chip soldered to the motherboard, to bootstrap the motherboard. (Socketed BIOS chips are widely used, also.) By booting the motherboard, the memory, circuitry, and peripherals are tested and configured. This process is known ascomputer:

floppy drive
network controller
CD-ROM drive
DVD-ROM drive
SCSI hard drive
IDE, EIDE, or SATA hard drive
External USB memory storage device

Any of the above devices can be stored with machine code instructions to load an operating system or a program.

Increasing LAN speed

2008-10-07T04:38:00.000-07:00

First go to the properties of the nic card and check the box under the general tab that says "show icon in notification area when connected".

Now you will see a computer icon in the lower right corner of your screen. Place your mouse over it without clicking. You should get a ballon that tells you what it is and the speed.

If 100mb then its not your lan but, most likely, your internet connection.

If 10mb in the same network properties and then nic properties you can set the speed and duplex of the nic. 100mb and full duplex.

10 Tips for Wireless Home Network Security

2008-10-07T04:34:00.000-07:00

Many folks setting up wireless home networks rush through the job to get their Internet connectivity working as quickly as possible. That's totally understandable. It's also quite risky as numerous security problems can result. Today's Wi-Fi networking products don't always help the situation as configuring their security features can be time-consuming and non-intuitive. The recommendations below summarize the steps you should take to improve the security of your home wireless network.

1. Change Default Administrator Passwords (and Usernames)

At the core of most Wi-Fi home networks is an access point or router. To set up these pieces of equipment, manufacturers provide Web pages that allow owners to enter their network address and account information. These Web tools are protected with a login screen (username and password) so that only the rightful owner can do this. However, for any given piece of equipment, the logins provided are simple and very well-known to hackers on the Internet. Change these settings immediately.

2. Turn on (Compatible) WPA / WEP Encryption

All Wi-Fi equipment supports some form of encryption. Encryption technology scrambles messages sent over wireless networks so that they cannot be easily read by humans. Several encryption technologies exist for Wi-Fi today. Naturally you will want to pick the strongest form of encryption that works with your wireless network. However, the way these technologies work, all Wi-Fi devices on your network must share the identical encryption settings. Therefore you may need to find a "lowest common demoninator" setting.

3. Change the Default SSID

Access points and routers all use a network name called the SSID. Manufacturers normally ship their products with the same SSID set. For example, the SSID for Linksys devices is normally "linksys." True, knowing the SSID does not by itself allow your neighbors to break into your network, but it is a start. More importantly, when someone finds a default SSID, they see it is a poorly configured network and are much more likely to attack it. Change the default SSID immediately when configuring wireless security on your network.

4. Enable MAC Address Filtering

Each piece of Wi-Fi gear possesses a unique identifier called the physical address or MAC address. Access points and routers keep track of the MAC addresses of all devices that connect to them. Many such products offer the owner an option to key in the MAC addresses of their home equipment, that restricts the network to only allow connections from those devices. Do this, but also know that the feature is not so powerful as it may seem. Hackers and their software programs can fake MAC addresses easily.

5. Disable SSID Broadcast

In Wi-Fi networking, the wireless access point or router typically broadcasts the network name (SSID) over the air at regular intervals. This feature was designed for businesses and mobile hotspots where Wi-Fi clients may roam in and out of range. In the home, this roaming feature is unnecessary, and it increases the likelihood someone will try to log in to your home network. Fortunately, most Wi-Fi access points allow the SSID broadcast feature to be disabled by the network administrator.

6. Do Not Auto-Connect to Open Wi-Fi Networks

Connecting to an open Wi-Fi network such as a free wireless hotspot or your neighbor's router exposes your computer to security risks. Although not normally enabled, most computers have a setting available allowing these connections to happen automatically without notifying you (the user). This setting should not be enabled except in temporary situations.

7. Assign Static IP Addresses to Devices

Most home networkers gravitate toward using dynamic IP addresses. DHCP technology is indeed easy to set up. Unfortunately, this convenience also works to the advantage of network attackers, who can easily obtain valid IP addresses from your network's DHCP pool. Turn off DHCP on the router or access point, set a fixed IP address range instead, then configure each connected device to match. Use a private IP address range (like 10.0.0.x) to prevent computers from being directly reached from the Internet.

8. Enable Firewalls On Each Computer and the Router

Modern network routers contain built-in firewall capability, but the option also exists to disable them. Ensure that your router's firewall is turned on. For extra protection, consider installing and running personal firewall software on each computer connected to the router.

9. Position the Router or Access Point Safely

Wi-Fi signals normally reach to the exterior of a home. A small amount of signal leakage outdoors is not a problem, but the further this signal reaches, the easier it is for others to detect and exploit. Wi-Fi signals often reach through neighboring homes and into streets, for example. When installing a wireless home network, the position of the access point or router determines its reach. Try to position these devices near the center of the home rather than near windows to minimize leakage.

10. Turn Off the Network During Extended Periods of Non-Use

The ultimate in wireless security measures, shutting down your network will most certainly prevent outside hackers from breaking in! While impractical to turn off and on the devices frequently, at least consider doing so during travel or extended periods offline. Computer disk drives have been known to suffer from power cycle wear-and-tear, but this is a secondary concern for broadband modems and routers.

If you own a wireless router but are only using it wired (Ethernet) connections, you can also sometimes turn off Wi-Fi on a broadband router without powering down the entire network.

Router

2008-10-07T04:26:00.000-07:00

A router (pronounced /'rautər/ in the USA, pronounced /'ru:tər/ in the UK and Ireland, or either pronunciation in Australia and Canada) is a computer whose software and hardware are usually tailored to the tasks of routing and forwarding information. Routers generally contain a specialized operating system (e.g. Cisco's IOS or Juniper Networks JUNOS and JUNOSe or Extreme Networks XOS), RAM, NVRAM, flash memory, and one or more processors, as well as two or more network interfaces. High-end routers contain many processors and specialized Application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC) and do a great deal of parallel processing. Chassis based systems like the Nortel MERS-8600 or ERS-8600 routing switch, (pictured right) have multiple ASICs on every module and allow for a wide variety of LAN, MAN, METRO, and WAN port technologies or other connections that are customizable. Much simpler routers are used where cost is important and the demand is low, for example in providing a home internet service. With appropriate software (such as Untangle, SmoothWall, XORP or Quagga), a standard PC can act as a router.

Routers connect two or more logical subnets, which do not necessarily map one-to-one to the physical interfaces of the router.^[1] The term layer 3 switch often is used interchangeably with router, but switch is really a general term without a rigorous technical definition. In marketing usage, it is generally optimized for Ethernet LAN interfaces and may not have other physical interface types.

Routers operate in two different planes ^[2]:

Control Plane, in which the router learns the outgoing interface that is most appropriate for forwarding specific packets to specific destinations,
Forwarding Plane, which is responsible for the actual process of sending a packet received on a logical interface to an outbound logical interface.

4 steps to set up your home wireless network Router

You can use a wireless network to share Internet access, files, printers, and more. Or you can use it to surf the Web while you're sitting on your couch or in your yard. Plus, it's easier to install than you think.

There are 4 steps to creating a wireless network:

1.	Choose your wireless equipment
2.	Connect your wireless router
3.	Configure your wireless router
4.	Connect your computers

For Windows XP users, Windows XP Service Pack 2 is not required for wireless networking, but it does make things much easier. Service Pack 2 also helps protect you against hackers, worms, and other Internet intruders.

Choose your wireless equipment

The first step is to make sure that you have the equipment you need. As you're looking for products in stores or on the Internet, you might notice that you can choose equipment that supports three different wireless networking technologies: 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g. We recommend 802.11g, because it offers excellent performance and is compatible with almost everything.

Shopping list

•	Broadband Internet connection
•	Wireless router
•	A computer with built-in wireless networking support or a wireless network adapter

A wireless router

The router converts the signals coming across your Internet connection into a wireless broadcast, sort of like a cordless phone base station. Be sure to get a wireless router, and not a wireless access point.

A wireless network adapter

Network adapters wirelessly connect your computer to your wireless router. If you have a newer computer you may already have wireless capabilities built in. If this is the case, then you will not need a wireless network adapter. If you need to purchase an adapter for a desktop computer, buy a USB wireless network adapter. If you have a laptop, buy a PC card-based network adapter. Make sure that you have one adapter for every computer on your network.

Note: To make setup easy, choose a network adapter made by the same vendor that made your wireless router. For example, if you find a good price on a Linksys router, choose a Linksys network adapter to go with it. To make shopping even easier, buy a bundle, such as those available from D-Link, Netgear, Linksys, Microsoft, and Buffalo. If you have a desktop computer, make sure that you have an available USB port to plug the wireless network adapter into. If you don't have any open USB ports, buy a hub to add additional ports.

Connect your wireless router

Since you'll be temporarily disconnected from the Internet, print these instructions before you go any further.

First, locate your cable modem or DSL modem and unplug it to turn it off.

Next, connect your wireless router to your modem. Your modem should stay connected directly to the Internet. Later, after you've hooked everything up, your computer will wirelessly connect to your router, and the router will send communications through your modem to the Internet.

Next, connect your router to your modem:

Note: The instructions below apply to a Linksys wireless router. The ports on your router may be labeled differently, and the images may look different on your router. Check the documentation that came with your equipment for additional assistance.

•	If you currently have your computer connected directly to your modem: Unplug the network cable from the back of your computer, and plug it into the port labeled Internet, WAN, or WLAN on the back of your router.
•	If you do not currently have a computer connected to the Internet: Plug one end of a network cable (included with your router) into your modem, and plug the other end of the network cable into the Internet, WAN, or WLAN port on your wireless router.
•	If you currently have your computer connected to a router: Unplug the network cable connected to the Internet, WAN, or WLAN port from your current router, and plug this end of the cable into the Internet, WAN, or WLAN port on your wireless router. Then, unplug any other network cables, and plug them into the available ports on your wireless router. You no longer need your original router, because your new wireless router replaces it.

Next, plug in and turn on your cable or DSL modem. Wait a few minutes to give it time to connect to the Internet, and then plug in and turn on your wireless router. After a minute, the Internet, WAN, or WLAN light on your wireless router should light up, indicating that it has successfully connected to your modem.

Configure your wireless router

Using the network cable that came with your wireless router, you should temporarily connect your computer to one of the open network ports on your wireless router (any port that isn't labeled Internet, WAN, or WLAN). If you need to, turn your computer on. It should automatically connect to your router.

Next, open Internet Explorer and type in the address to configure your router.

You might be prompted for a password. The address and password you use will vary depending on what type of router you have, so refer to the instructions included with your router.

As a quick reference, this table shows the default addresses, usernames, and passwords for some common router manufacturers.

Router	Address	Username	Password
3Com	http://192.168.1.1	admin	admin
D-Link	http://192.168.0.1	admin
Linksys	http://192.168.1.1	admin	admin
Microsoft Broadband	http://192.168.2.1	admin	admin
Netgear	http://192.168.0.1	admin	password

Internet Explorer will show your router's configuration page. Most of the default settings should be fine, but you should configure three things:

1.	Your wireless network name, known as the SSID. This name identifies your network. You should choose something unique that none of your neighbors will be using.
2.	Wireless encryption (WEP) or Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), which help protect your wireless network. For most routers, you will provide a passphrase that your router uses to generate several keys. Make sure your passphrase is unique and long (you don't need to memorize it).
3.	Your administrative password, which controls your wireless network. Just like any other password, it should not be a word that you can find in the dictionary, and it should be a combination of letters, numbers, and symbols. Be sure you can remember this password, because you'll need it if you ever have to change your router's settings.

The exact steps you follow to configure these settings will vary depending on the type of router you have. After each configuration setting, be sure to click Save Settings, Apply, or OK to save your changes.

Now, you should disconnect the network cable from your computer.

Connect your computers

If your computer does not have wireless network support built in, plug your network adapter into your USB port, and place the antenna on top of your computer (in the case of a desktop computer), or insert the network adapter into an empty PC card slot (in the case of a laptop). Windows XP will automatically detect the new adapter, and may prompt you to insert the CD that came with your adapter. The on-screen instructions will guide you through the configuration process.

Note: The steps below only apply if you're using Windows XP Service Pack 2. If you're running Windows XP and you don't have Service Pack 2 yet, plug your computer into your wireless router and download and install Windows XP Service Pack 2.

Windows XP should show an icon with a notification that says it has found a wireless network.

Follow these steps to connect your computer to your wireless network:

1.	Right-click the wireless network icon in the lower-right corner of your screen, and then click View Available Wireless Networks. If you run into any problems, consult the documentation that came with your network adapter. Don't be afraid to call their tech support.
2.	The Wireless Network Connection window should appear and you should see your wireless network listed with the network name you chose. If you don't see your network, click Refresh network list in the upper-left corner. Click your network, and then click Connect in the lower-right corner.
3.	Windows XP prompts you to enter a key. Type the encryption key that you wrote down earlier in both the Network key and Confirm network key boxes, and then click Connect.
4.	Windows XP will show its progress as it connects to your network. After you're connected, you can now close the Wireless Network Connection window. You're done.

Note: If the Wireless Network Connection window continues to show Acquiring Network Address, you may have mistyped the encryption key.

Network switch

2008-10-07T04:23:00.000-07:00

A network switch is a broad and imprecise marketing term for a computer networking device that connects network segments.

The term commonly refers to a Network bridge that processes and routes data at the Data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the Network layer (layer 3) (and above) are often referred to as Layer 3 switches or Multilayer switches.

The term Network switch does not generally encompass unintelligent or passive network devices such as hubs and repeaters.

The first Ethernet switch was introduced by Kalpana in 1989.

Function

As with hubs, Ethernet implementations of network switches support either 10/100 Mbit/s or 10/100/1000 Mbit/s ports Ethernet standards. Large switches may have 10 Gbit/s ports. Switches differ from hubs in that they can have ports of different speed.

The network switch, packet switch (or just switch) plays an integral part in most Ethernet local area networks or LANs. Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small office, home office (SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged device such as gateway access to small office/home office broadband services such as DSL router or cable, Wi-Fi router. In most of these cases, the end user device contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology, as in the Linksys 8-port and 48-port devices. User devices may also include a telephone interface to VoIP.

In simple terms, in the context of a standard 10/100 Ethernet switch, a switch operates at the data-link layer of the OSI model to create a different collision domain per switch port. This basically says that if you have 4 computers A/B/C/D on 4 switch ports, then A and B can transfer data between them as well as C and D at the same time, and they will never interfere with each others' conversations. That is the basic idea. In the case of a "hub" then they would all have to share the bandwidth, run in half-duplex and there would be collisions and retransmissions. Using a switch is called micro-segmentation - it allows you to have dedicated bandwidth on point to point connections with every computer and to therefore run in full duplex with no collisions.

THE BASICS OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE

2008-10-07T04:17:00.001-07:00

BRIEF OVER VIEW OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE ADVANTAGES OVER COPPER:

• SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits
• BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
• DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or strengthened.
• RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or other nearby cables.
• MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

In recent years it has become apparent that fiber-optics are steadily replacing copper wire as an appropriate means of communication signal transmission. They span the long distances between local phone systems as well as providing the backbone for many network systems. Other system users include cable television services, university campuses, office buildings, industrial plants, and electric utility companies.

A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiber-optics is replacing. The difference is that fiber-optics use light pulses to transmit information down fiber lines instead of using electronic pulses to transmit information down copper lines. Looking at the components in a fiber-optic chain will give a better understanding of how the system works in conjunction with wire based systems.

At one end of the system is a transmitter. This is the place of origin for information coming on to fiber-optic lines. The transmitter accepts coded electronic pulse information coming from copper wire. It then processes and translates that information into equivalently coded light pulses. A light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection-laser diode (ILD) can be used for generating the light pulses. Using a lens, the light pulses are funneled into the fiber-optic medium where they travel down the cable. The light (near infrared) is most often 850nm for shorter distances and 1,300nm for longer distances on Multi-mode fiber and 1300nm for single-mode fiber and 1,500nm is used for for longer distances.

Think of a fiber cable in terms of very long cardboard roll (from the inside roll of paper towel) that is coated with a mirror on the inside.
If you shine a flashlight in one end you can see light come out at the far end - even if it's been bent around a corner.

Light pulses move easily down the fiber-optic line because of a principle known as total internal reflection. "This principle of total internal reflection states that when the angle of incidence exceeds a critical value, light cannot get out of the glass; instead, the light bounces back in. When this principle is applied to the construction of the fiber-optic strand, it is possible to transmit information down fiber lines in the form of light pulses. The core must a very clear and pure material for the light or in most cases near infrared light (850nm, 1300nm and 1500nm). The core can be Plastic (used for very short distances) but most are made from glass. Glass optical fibers are almost always made from pure silica, but some other materials, such as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide glasses, are used for longer-wavelength infrared applications.

There are three types of fiber optic cable commonly used: single mode, multimode and plastic optical fiber (POF).

Transparent glass or plastic fibers which allow light to be guided from one end to the other with minimal loss.

Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light introduced at one end of the cable through to the other end. The light source can either be a light-emitting diode (LED)) or a laser.

The light source is pulsed on and off, and a light-sensitive receiver on the other end of the cable converts the pulses back into the digital ones and zeros of the original signal.

Even laser light shining through a fiber optic cable is subject to loss of strength, primarily through dispersion and scattering of the light, within the cable itself. The faster the laser fluctuates, the greater the risk of dispersion. Light strengtheners, called repeaters, may be necessary to refresh the signal in certain applications.

While fiber optic cable itself has become cheaper over time - a equivalent length of copper cable cost less per foot but not in capacity. Fiber optic cable connectors and the equipment needed to install them are still more expensive than their copper counterparts.

Single Mode cable is a single stand (most applications use 2 fibers) of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of transmission. Single Mode Fiber with a relatively narrow diameter, through which only one mode will propagate typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than multimode fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow spectral width. Synonyms mono-mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical waveguide, uni-mode fiber.

Single Modem fiber is used in many applications where data is sent at multi-frequency (WDM Wave-Division-Multiplexing) so only one cable is needed - (single-mode on one single fiber)

Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more distance than multimode, but it also costs more. Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core than multimode. The small core and single light-wave virtually eliminate any distortion that could result from overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any fiber cable type.

Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the lowest order bound mode can propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to 1320nm.

jump to single mode fiber page

Multi-Mode cable has a little bit bigger diameter, with a common diameters in the 50-to-100 micron range for the light carry component (in the US the most common size is 62.5um). Most applications in which Multi-mode fiber is used, 2 fibers are used (WDM is not normally used on multi-mode fiber). POF is a newer plastic-based cable which promises performance similar to glass cable on very short runs, but at a lower cost.

Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds (10 to 100MBS - Gigabit to 275m to 2km) over medium distances. Light waves are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as they travel through the cable's core typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical multimode fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers. However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet [914.4 meters), multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at the receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete data transmission so designers now call for single mode fiber in new applications using Gigabit and beyond.

The use of fiber-optics was generally not available until 1970 when Corning Glass Works was able to produce a fiber with a loss of 20 dB/km. It was recognized that optical fiber would be feasible for telecommunication transmission only if glass could be developed so pure that attenuation would be 20dB/km or less. That is, 1% of the light would remain after traveling 1 km. Today's optical fiber attenuation ranges from 0.5dB/km to 1000dB/km depending on the optical fiber used. Attenuation limits are based on intended application.

The applications of optical fiber communications have increased at a rapid rate, since the first commercial installation of a fiber-optic system in 1977. Telephone companies began early on, replacing their old copper wire systems with optical fiber lines. Today's telephone companies use optical fiber throughout their system as the backbone architecture and as the long-distance connection between city phone systems.

Cable television companies have also began integrating fiber-optics into their cable systems. The trunk lines that connect central offices have generally been replaced with optical fiber. Some providers have begun experimenting with fiber to the curb using a fiber/coaxial hybrid. Such a hybrid allows for the integration of fiber and coaxial at a neighborhood location. This location, called a node, would provide the optical receiver that converts the light impulses back to electronic signals. The signals could then be fed to individual homes via coaxial cable.

Local Area Networks (LAN) is a collective group of computers, or computer systems, connected to each other allowing for shared program software or data bases. Colleges, universities, office buildings, and industrial plants, just to name a few, all make use of optical fiber within their LAN systems.

Power companies are an emerging group that have begun to utilize fiber-optics in their communication systems. Most power utilities already have fiber-optic communication systems in use for monitoring their power grid systems.

jump to Illustrated Fiber Optic Glossary pages

Fiber

by John MacChesney - Fellow at Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies

Some 10 billion digital bits can be transmitted per second along an optical fiber link in a commercial network, enough to carry tens of thousands of telephone calls. Hair-thin fibers consist of two concentric layers of high-purity silica glass the core and the cladding, which are enclosed by a protective sheath. Light rays modulated into digital pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode move along the core without penetrating the cladding.

The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive index—a measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the development of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic networks to carry trillions of bits of data per second.

Total internal refection confines light within optical fibers (similar to looking down a mirror made in the shape of a long paper towel tube). Because the cladding has a lower refractive index, light rays reflect back into the core if they encounter the cladding at a shallow angle (red lines). A ray that exceeds a certain "critical" angle escapes from the fiber (yellow line).

STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter. As a result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route, whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These alternative pathways cause the different groupings of light rays, referred to as modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point. The pulse, an aggregate of different modes, begins to spread out, losing its well-defined shape. The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent overlapping limits bandwidth that is, the amount of information that can be sent. Consequently, this type of fiber is best suited for transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.

GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding. Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the higher speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as the slow but straight rays in the core axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers less dispersion.

SINGLE-MODE FIBER has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of refraction between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable television networks install millions of kilometers of this fiber every year.

BASIC CABLE DESIGN

1 - Two basic cable designs are:

Loose-tube cable, used in the majority of outside-plant installations in North America, and tight-buffered cable, primarily used inside buildings.

The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds up to 12 fibers per buffer tube with a maximum per cable fiber count of more than 200 fibers. Loose-tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally armored. The modular buffer-tube design permits easy drop-off of groups of fibers at intermediate points, without interfering with other protected buffer tubes being routed to other locations. The loose-tube design also helps in the identification and administration of fibers in the system.

Single-fiber tight-buffered cables are used as pigtails, patch cords and jumpers to terminate loose-tube cables directly into opto-electronic transmitters, receivers and other active and passive components.

Multi-fiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are used primarily for alternative routing and handling flexibility and ease within buildings.

2 - Loose-Tube Cable

In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded plastic buffer tubes house and protect optical fibers. A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess fiber length (relative to buffer tube length) insulates fibers from stresses of installation and environmental loading. Buffer tubes are stranded around a dielectric or steel central member, which serves as an anti-buckling element.

The cable core, typically uses aramid yarn, as the primary tensile strength member. The outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the core. If armoring is required, a corrugated steel tape is formed around a single jacketed cable with an additional jacket extruded over the armor.

Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant installation in aerial, duct and direct-buried applications.

3 - Tight-Buffered Cable

With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contact with the fiber. This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant cables to terminal equipment, and also for linking various devices in a premises network.

Multi-fiber, tight-buffered cables often are used for intra-building, risers, general building and plenum applications.

The tight-buffered design provides a rugged cable structure to protect individual fibers during handling, routing and connectorization. Yarn strength members keep the tensile load away from the fiber.

As with loose-tube cables, optical specifications for tight-buffered cables also should include the maximum performance of all fibers over the operating temperature range and life of the cable. Averages should not be acceptable.

Connector Types

Gruber Industries
cable connectors

here are some common fiber cable types

Distribution Cable

Distribution Cable (compact building cable) packages individual 900µm buffered fiber reducing size and cost when compared to breakout cable. The connectors may be installed directly on the 900µm buffered fiber at the breakout box location. The space saving (OFNR) rated cable may be installed where ever breakout cable is used. FIS will connectorize directly onto 900µm fiber or will build up ends to a 3mm jacketed fiber before the connectors are installed.

Indoor/Outdoor Tight Buffer

FIS now offers indoor/outdoor rated tight buffer cables in Riser and Plenum rated versions. These cables are flexible, easy to handle and simple to install. Since they do not use gel, the connectors can be terminated directly onto the fiber without difficult to use breakout kits. This provides an easy and overall less expensive installation. (Temperature rating -40ºC to +85ºC).

Indoor/Outdoor Breakout Cable

FIS indoor/outdoor rated breakout style cables are easy to install and simple to terminate without the need for fanout kits. These rugged and durable cables are OFNR rated so they can be used indoors, while also having a -40c to +85c operating temperature range and the benefits of fungus, water and UV protection making them perfect for outdoor applications. They come standard with 2.5mm sub units and they are available in plenum rated versions.

Low Smoke Zero Halogen (LSZH)

Low Smoke Zero Halogen cables are offered as as alternative for halogen free applications. Less toxic and slower to ignite, they are a good choice for many international installations. We offer them in many styles as well as simplex, duplex and 1.6mm designs. This cable is riser rated and contains no flooding gel, which makes the need for a separate point of termination unnecessary. Since splicing is eliminated, termination hardware and labor times are reduced, saving you time and money. This cable may be run through risers directly to a convenient network hub or splicing closet for interconnection.

What's the best way to terminate fiber optic cable? That depends on the application, cost considerations and your own personal preferences. The following connector comparisons can make the decision easier.

Epoxy & Polish

Epoxy & polish style connectors were the original fiber optic connectors. They still represent the largest segment of connectors, in both quantity used and variety available. Practically every style of connector is available including ST, SC, FC, LC, D4, SMA, MU, and MTRJ. Advantages include:

• Very robust. This connector style is based on tried and true technology, and can withstand the greatest environmental and mechanical stress when compared to the other connector technologies.
• This style of connector accepts the widest assortment of cable jacket diameters. Most connectors of this group have versions to fit onto 900um buffered fiber, and up to 3.0mm jacketed fiber.
• Versions are. available that hold from 1 to 24 fibers in a single connector.

Installation Time: There is an initial setup time for the field technician who must prepare a workstation with polishing equipment and an epoxy-curing oven. The termination time for one connector is about 25 minutes due to the time needed to heat cure the epoxy. Average time per connector in a large batch can be as low as 5 or 6 minutes. Faster curing epoxies such as anaerobic epoxy can reduce the installation time, but fast cure epoxies are not suitable for all connectors.

Skill Level: These connectors, while not difficult to install, do require the most supervised skills training, especially for polishing. They are best suited for the high-volume installer or assembly house with a trained and stable work force.

Costs: Least expensive connectors to purchase, in many cases being 30 to 50 percent cheaper than other termination style connectors. However, factor in the cost of epoxy curing and ferrule polishing equipment, and their associated consumables.

Pre-Loaded Epoxy or No-Epoxy & Polish

There are two main categories of no-epoxy & polish connectors. The first are connectors that are pre-loaded with a measured amount of epoxy. These connectors reduce the skill level needed to install a connector but they don't significantly reduce the time or equipment need-ed. The second category of connectors uses no epoxy at all. Usually they use an internal crimp mechanism to stabilize the fiber. These connectors reduce both the skill level needed and installation time. ST, SC, and FC connector styles are available. Advantages include:

• Epoxy injection is not required.
• No scraped connectors due to epoxy over-fill.
• Reduced equipment requirements for some versions.

Installation Time: Both versions have short setup time, with pre-loaded epoxy connectors having a slightly longer setup. Due to curing time, the pre-loaded epoxy connectors require the same amount of installation time as standard connectors, 25 minutes for 1 connector, 5-6 minutes average for a batch. Connectors that use the internal crimp method install in 2 minutes or less.

Skill Level: Skill requirements are reduced because the crimp mechanism is easier to master than using epoxy. They provide maximum flexibility with one technology and a balance between skill and cost.

Costs: Moderately more expensive to purchase than a standard connector. Equipment cost is equal to or less than that of standard con¬nectors. Consumable cost is reduced to polish film and cleaning sup-plies. Cost benefits derive from reduced training requirements and fast installation time.

No-Epoxy & No-Polish

Easiest and fastest connectors to install; well suited for contractors who cannot cost-justify the training and supervision required for standard connectors. Good solution for fast field restorations. ST, SC, FC, LC, and MTRJ connector styles are available. Advantages include:
• No setup time required.
• Lowest installation time per connector.
• Limited training required.
• Little or no consumables costs.

Installation Time: Almost zero. Its less than 1 minute regardless of number of connectors.

Skill level: Requires minimal training, making this type of connector ideal for installation companies with a high turnover rate of installers and/or that do limited amounts of optical-fiber terminations.

Costs: Generally the most expensive style connector to purchase, since some of the labor (polishing) is done in the factory. Also, one or two fairly expensive installation tools may be required. However, it may still be less expensive on a cost-per-installed-connector basis due to lower labor cost.

The Next Generation Internet!

2008-10-07T04:09:00.000-07:00

Welcome to the IPv6

What is IPv6?

IPv6 is short for "Internet Protocol Version 6". IPv6 is the "next generation" protocol designed by the IETF to replace the current version Internet Protocol, IP Version 4 ("IPv4").

Most of today's internet uses IPv4, which is now nearly twenty years old. IPv4 has been remarkably resilient in spite of its age, but it is beginning to have problems. Most importantly, there is a growing shortage of IPv4 addresses, which are needed by all new machines added to the Internet.

IPv6 fixes a number of problems in IPv4, such as the limited number of available IPv4 addresses. It also adds many improvements to IPv4 in areas such as routing and network autoconfiguration. IPv6 is expected to gradually replace IPv4, with the two coexisting for a number of years during a transition period.

Some introductory information about the protocol can be found in our IPv6 FAQ. For those interested in the technical details, we have a list of IPv6 related specifications.

Where can I get an IPv6 implementation for my system?

There is software available for most operating systems in common use today. Find your favorite OS on our list of IPv6 implementations. We also have a collection of "how to install" documents for various systems.

What applications run over IPv6 today?

Many common Internet applications already work with IPv6, and more are being ported. See our list of IPv6 enabled applications.

How can I get help with IPv6? Or find out more about it?

A new mailing list for IPv6 users has been established. If you are interested in deploying IPv6 for your site, this could be a valuable resource for you. We've also compiled a list of other sites with IPv6 information.

MAC address

2008-10-07T03:59:00.000-07:00

In computer networking, a Media Access Control address (MAC address) or Ethernet Hardware Address (EHA), hardware address, adapter address or physical address is a quasi-unique identifier assigned to most network adapters or network interface cards (NICs) by the manufacturer for identification. If assigned by the manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturer's registered identification number.

Three numbering spaces, managed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), are in common use for formulating a MAC address: MAC-48, EUI-48, and EUI-64. The IEEE claims trademarks on the names "EUI-48" and "EUI-64", where "EUI" stands for Extended Unique Identifier.

Although intended to be a permanent and globally unique identification, it is possible to change the MAC address on most of today's hardware, an action often referred to as MAC spoofing. Unlike IP address spoofing, where a sender spoofing their address in a request tricks the other party into sending the response elsewhere, in MAC address spoofing (which takes place only within a local area network), the response is received by the spoofing party.

A host cannot determine a priori from the MAC address of another host whether that host is on the same OSI Layer 2 network segment as the sending host or a network segment bridged to that network segment.

In TCP/IP networks, the MAC address of a subnet interface can be queried with the IP address using the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) for Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) or the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) for IPv6. On broadcast networks, such as Ethernet, the MAC address uniquely identifies each node and allows frames to be marked for specific hosts. It thus forms the basis of most of the link layer (OSI Layer 2) networking upon which upper layer protocols rely to produce complex, functioning networks.

How to connect 2 systems using LAN

2008-10-07T03:08:00.000-07:00

make a cross cable for the connection and put the 2 pc under the same workgroup.And finally, add d below configuration 2 d LAN of d 2 system.

IP address eg.. 192.168.0.1 subnetmask 255.255.255.0
and2nd system 192.168.0.2 subnetmask 255.255.255.0

It will definitely work.giv me a feedback

Connecting two computers with a USB cable.

2008-10-07T03:05:00.001-07:00

What to choose?
How does it work?
What to do?

If you have to transfer huge files from one PC to another, using a flash disk or burning a CD-ROM can seem like a waste of time. One wise way to transfer these files quickly between two computers would be to use a USB-USB cable.

What to choose?

To be able to make the transfer, you will need:
1. An Ethernet crossover cable
2. A null modem serial cable. If you don’t have one, you can use a parallel peripheral cable.
3. And finally special-purpose USB cables.

How does it work?

The Ethernet network will allow you to transfer data between more than two PCs. One of the computers must have an Ethernet adapter, even if the others have a USB port as you can make use of the crossover cable. You can do this by plugging a USB-to-Ethernet converter device in the other computers that possess a USB port.

The cable that you should use to connect two PCs together is called a “USB networking cable”. A tiny electronic circuit is used in the middle of the connection to allow the two PC to send data to one another. You should bear in mind that if you are using serial or parallel cables, you will not be able to transfer data between more than two computers. Hence, I will suggest you to use a Direct Cable Connection to be able to get the same specifications as an Ethernet cable.

You can make use of a USB 1.1 or USB 2.0 bridge chip to enhance the speed of your transfer. You must also bear in mind that you need an Ethernet network that works at least at 100 Mps to ease your transfers.

What to do?

1. Both computers should be switched on and logged in into “Administrator” account.
2. On the USB port computer, plug in the USB bridge in the USB slot and the end bridge in the other computer.
3. You must now install the USB bridge cable driver software when you are asked to. Remember to install it as a link adapter or a network adapter.
4. If you choose to install a link adapter, you will be allowed to transfer files from one PC to another but if you choose to install a network adapter, you will be able to access the whole network’s PCs.
5. When installation is complete, you should be able to start the data transfers between the computers connected.

CAT 5 Patch Cable

2008-10-07T02:45:00.002-07:00

LANshack.com was the very first ecommerce website to offer free online tutorials for cable connections. To say that our articles have been popular over the span of many years would be an understatement. But time marches on and we now have three major updates. For one, we have updated this very popular tutorial, and two, we now have a video tutorial to go with it. But most importantly, we have now developed a totally new system for termination cables called the “Quick-Cat System”

Wow! After over 10 Years of working with cables, tools and connectors, and after keeping on top of our tool, cable, and connector suppliers, we have put it all together to formulate this system for the present a future of cabling components. What does all this mean to the consumer? Compatibility, Reliability, Dependability, ease of use and virtually fool-proof and repeatable results.

Due to an overwhelming response to our category 5 & 6 tutorial, and many requests for information and wiring diagrams of "straight through" and "crossover" (cross-pinned) patch cords, I have made this informational page and technical video. On this page, we will cover making patch cords, and other technical and non-technical issues relating to category 5 and 6 patching and connectivity from device to device. Below, you will find the diagrams for 568A, 568B, and crossover patch cables. I suggest that you read on, past the diagrams for some very useful and important information.

As always, there continues to be Controversies over standards and practices regarding the use and making of patch cords, and UTP cable in general. Please see our section below titled: "Controversies and Caveats : Category 5, 5E, and Cat 6 Patch Cables". I hope that you will find it interesting and informative.

--Tony Casazza, RCDD

568-B Wiring

Pair #	Wire	Pin #
1-White/Blue	White/Blue	5
1-White/Blue	Blue/White	4
2-Wht./Orange	White/Orange	1
2-Wht./Orange	Orange White	2
3-White/Green	White/Green	3
3-White/Green	Green/White	6
4-White/Brown	White/Brown	7
4-White/Brown	Brown/White	8
<>

568-A Wiring

Pair #	Wire	Pin #
1-White/Blue	White/Blue	5
1-White/Blue	Blue/White	4
2-White/Green	White/Green	1
2-White/Green	Green/White	2
3-White/Orange	White/Orange	3
3-White/Orange	Orange/White	6
4-White/Brown	White/Brown	7
4-White/Brown	Brown/White	8
<>

LAN - Local Area Network

2008-10-07T02:37:00.000-07:00

LAN CARD

Definition: A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN.

Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as Ethernet cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN hardware options also exist.

Specialized operating system software may be used to configure a local area network. For example, most flavors of Microsoft Windows provide a software package called Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) that supports controlled access to LAN resources.

The term LAN party refers to a multiplayer gaming event where participants bring their own computers and build a temporary LAN.

Also Known As: local area network

Examples: The most common type of local area network is an Ethernet LAN. The smallest home LAN can have exactly two computers; a large LAN can accommodate many thousands of computers. Many LANs are divided into logical groups called subnets. An Internet Protocol (IP) "Class A" LAN can in theory accommodate more than 16 million devices organized into subnets.

Types of Internet Connections

2008-10-07T00:00:00.000-07:00

A Quick Reference

As technology grows, so does our need for bigger, better and faster. Over the years, the way content is presented via the Web has changed drastically. Ten years ago being able to center bold, colored text was something to admire, while today Flash, animations, online gaming, database-driven Web sites, e-commerce and virtual offices — to name but a few — are becoming standards. The need for speed has changed the options available to consumers and businesses alike in terms of how and how fast we can connect to the Internet.

While technology changes at a rapid pace, so do Internet connections. The connection speeds listed below represent a snapshot of general average to maximum speeds at the time of publication. This is no doubt will change over time and Internet connection speeds also vary between Internet Service Providers (ISP).

Analog (up to 56k)
Also called dial-up access, it is both economical and slow. Using a modem connected to your PC, users connect to the Internet when the computer dials a phone number (which is provided by your ISP) and connects to the network. Dial-up is an analog connection because data is sent over an analog, public telephone network. The modem converts received analog data to digital and vise versa. Because dial-up access uses normal telephone lines the quality of the connection is not always good and data rates are limited.

Typical Dial-up connection speeds range from 2400 bps to 56 Kbps.

ISDN
Integrated services digital network (ISDN) is an international communications standard for sending voice, video, and data over digital telephone lines or normal telephone wires.

Typical ISDN speeds range from 64 Kbps to 128 Kbps.

B-ISDN
Broadband ISDN is similar in function to ISDN but it transfers data over fiber optic telephone lines, not normal telephone wires. SONET is the physical transport backbone of B-ISDN. Broadband ISDN has not been widely implemented.

DSL
DSL is also called an always on connection because it uses existing 2-wire copper telephone line connected to the premise and will not tie up your phone as a dial-up connection does. There is no need to dial-in to your ISP as DSL is always on. The two main categories of DSL for home subscribers are called ADSL and SDSL.

ADSL
ADSL is the most commonly deployed types of DSL in North America. Short for asymmetric digital subscriber line ADSL supports data rates of from 1.5 to 9 Mbps when receiving data (known as the downstream rate) and from 16 to 640 Kbps when sending data (known as the upstream rate). ADSL requires a special ADSL modem.

SDSL
SDSL is still more common in Europe. Short for symmetric digital subscriber line, a technology that allows more data to be sent over existing copper telephone lines (POTS). SDSL supports data rates up to 3 Mbps. SDSL works by sending digital pulses in the high-frequency area of telephone wires and can not operate simultaneously with voice connections over the same wires. SDSL requires a special SDSL modem. SDSL is called symmetric because it supports the same data rates for upstream and downstream traffic.

VDSL
Very High DSL (VDSL) is a DSL technology that offers fast data rates over relatively short distances — the shorter the distance, the faster the connection rate.

All types of DSL technologies are collectively referred to as xDSL.

xDSL connection speeds range from 128 Kbps to 8 Mbps.

Cable
Through the use of a cable modem you can have a broadband Internet connection that is designed to operate over cable TV lines. Cable Internet works by using TV channel space for data transmission, with certain channels used for downstream transmission, and other channels for upstream transmission. Because the coaxial cable used by cable TV provides much greater bandwidth than telephone lines, a cable modem can be used to achieve extremely fast access.

Cable speeds range from 512 Kbps to 20 Mbps.

Wireless Internet Connections
Wireless Internet, or wireless broadband is one of the newest Internet connection types. Instead of using telephone or cable networks for your Internet connection, you use radio frequency bands. Wireless Internet provides an always-on connection which can be accessed from anywhere — as long as you geographically within a network coverage area. Wireless access is still considered to be relatively new, and it may be difficult to find a wireless service provider in some areas. It is typically more expensive and mainly available in metropolitan areas.

See the Wireless Networking Standards page of Webopedia for data rates, Modulation schemes, Security, and More info on Wireless networking.

T-1 Lines
T-1 lines are a popular leased line option for businesses connecting to the Internet and for Internet Service Providers (ISPs) connecting to the Internet backbone. It is a dedicated phone connection supporting data rates of 1.544Mbps. A T-1 line actually consists of 24 individual channels, each of which supports 64Kbits per second. Each 64Kbit/second channel can be configured to carry voice or data traffic. Most telephone companies allow you to buy just one or some of these individual channels. This is known as as fractional T-1 access.

Bonded T-1
A bonded T-1 is two or more T-1 lines that have been joined (bonded) together to increase bandwidth. Where a single T-1 provides approximately 1.5Mbps, two bonded T1s provide 3Mbps or 46 channels for voice or data. Two bonded T-1s allow you to use the full bandwidth of 3Mbps where two individual T-1s can still only use a maximum of 1.5Mbps at one time. To be bonded the T-1 must run into the same router at the end, meaning they must run to the same ISP.

T-1 Lines support speeds of 1.544 Mbps

Fractional T-1 speeds are 64 Kbps per channel (up to 1.544 Mbps), depending on number of leased channels.

Typical Bonded T-1 (two bonded T-1 lines) speed is around 3 Mbps.

T-3 Lines
T-3 lines are dedicated phone connections supporting data rates of about 43 to 45 Mbps. It too is a popular leased line option. A T-3 line actually consists of 672 individual channels, each of which supports 64 Kbps. T-3 lines are used mainly by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) connecting to the Internet backbone and for the backbone itself.

Typical T-3 supports speeds ranging from 43 to 45 Mbps.

Satellite
Internet over Satellite (IoS) allows a user to access the Internet via a satellite that orbits the earth. A satellite is placed at a static point above the earth's surface, in a fixed position. Because of the enormous distances signals must travel from the earth up to the satellite and back again, IoS is slightly slower than high-speed terrestrial connections over copper or fiber optic cables.

Typical Internet over Satellite connection speeds (standard IP services) average around 492 up to 512 Kbps.

IP or Internet Protocol

2008-10-06T23:50:00.000-07:00

Internet protocol is the set of techniques used by many hosts for transmitting data over the Internet. The current version of the Internet protocol is IPv4, which provides a 32-bit address system.

Internet protocol is a "best effort" system, meaning that no packet of information sent over it is assured to reach its destination in the same condition it was sent. Often other protocols are used in tandem with the Internet protocol for data that for one reason or another must have extremely high fidelity.

Every device connected to a network, be it a local area network (LAN) or the Internet, is given an Internet protocol number. This address is used to identify the device uniquely among all other devices connected to the extended network.

The current version of the Internet protocol (IPv4) allows for in excess of four billion unique addresses. This number is reduced drastically, however, by the practice of webmasters taking addresses in large blocks, the bulk of which remain unused. There is a rather substantial movement to adopt a new version of the Internet protocol (IPv6), which would have two to the one-hundred twenty-eighth power of unique addresses. This number can be represented roughly by a three with thirty-nine zeroes after it.

The reason such a virtually unlimited set of Internet protocol addresses is desirable is because of the onset of small wireless devices. In the past it seemed that four billion addresses would be more than enough, but addresses were used only by computers at the time. In the future, it is conceivable that for every human being on earth there will be hundreds, if not thousands, of devices communicating via wireless networks, each needing its own address in the Internet protocol.

Most human users do not utilize IP addresses directly, instead using words to access the servers and computers they wish to visit. Inputted domain names are connected to their Internet protocol addresses through the domain name system (DNS), which keeps a record of all domain names and the IP address they are related to.

How to set up a static IP address on a Windows Vista computer

It is very important to setup a static ip address, if you are going to use port forwarding. When you have port forwarding setup, your router forwards ports to an ip address that you specify. This will probably work when you initially set it up, but after restarting your computer it may get a different ip address. When this happens the ports will no longer be forwarded to your computer's ip address. So the port forwarding configuration will not work.

What is an ip address?
IP addresses are four sets of numbers separated by periods that allow computers to identify each other. Every computer has at least one ip address, and two computers should never have the same ip address. If they do, neither of them will be able to connect to the internet. There is a lot of information at the following link. You don't need all of it. But if you want to know more about how networks work, you'll find it there. For more information on ip addresses, subnets, and gateways go here

Dynamic vs Static IPs Most routers assign dynamic IP addresses by default. They do this because dynamic ip address networks require no configuration. The end user can simply plug their computer in, and their network will work. When ip addresses are assigned dynamically, the router is the one that assigns them. Every time a computer reboots it asks the router for an ip address. The router then hands it an ip address that has not already been handed out to another computer. This is important to note. When you set your computer to a static ip address, the router does not know that a computer is using that ip address. So the very same ip address may be handed to another computer later, and that will prevent both computers from connecting to the internet. So when you asign a static IP addresses, it's important to assign an IP address that will not be handed out to other computers by the dynamic IP address server. The dynamic IP address server is generally refered to as the dhcp server.

Setting up a static ip for windows Vista.

If you have a printer, before you begin print out this page!
Step 1:
Open up the start menu, and click Run. You should now see the following window.

Step 2:
Type cmd in the Open: box, and click Okay. The will bring up a black command prompt window.

Step 3:
The command prompt may look different on your screen, but it doesn't really matter. Type ipconfig /all in that window, and then press the enter key. This will display a lot of information. If it scrolls off the top you may need to enlarge the window.

Step 4:
I want you to write down some of the information in this window. Take down the IP address, Subnet Mask, Default Gateway, and Name Servers. Make sure to note which is which. We are going to use this information a little bit later. We are only concerned with IPv4 entries, you can ignore the IPv6 stuff.

The name server entries are a bit complicated. Name Server is just another name for DNS(domain name server) server. Some router's act as a proxy between the actual name servers and your computer. You will know when this is the case, because the Default Gateway will list the same ip address as the Name Servers entry. We need to have the correct Name Server IP addresses. If we do not, you will not be able to browse the web. There are a couple ways to get these. The first way is to log into your router's web interface, and look at your router's status page. On that page you should see an entry for DNS Servers, or Name Servers. Write down the ip adresses of your Name Servers. Another way to get the correct Name Servers to use, is to give your ISP a call. They should know the ip addresses of your Name Servers right off. If they ask you why you need them, you can tell them you are trying to setup a static IP address on your computer. If they try to sell you a static external ip address, don't buy it. That's an entirely different thing that what you are trying to setup.

Type exit in this window, then press the enter key to close it.

Step 5:
Once again open the start menu. This time click Control Panel.

Step 6:
Double click Network and Sharing Center.

Step 7:
Single click Manage Network Connections on the left side of your screen.

Step 8:
You may have several network connections in this window. I want you to right click on the one you use to connect to the internet. Then click properties.

If you are unsure of which one that is, right click it and then click disable. Open a new copy of your web browser? Did it open a webpage? If you can not, then you've found your internet connection. Close that browser window. Go ahead and right click the network connection again and then click enable. Once again open up a new web browser. You should see a webpage. Close the browser window. Right click on the network connection and click properties at the bottom.

Step 9:
You should now have the above window on your screen. Click the properties button to open up the properties window of this internet connection.

Step 10:
Click Internet Protocol(TCP/IP) and then the Properties button. You will now see the following screen.

Step 11:
Before you make any changes, write down the settings that you see on this page. If something goes wrong you can always change the settings back to what they were! You should see a dot in the Obtain an IP address automatically box. If you do not, your connection is already setup for a static ip. Just close all these windows and you are done.

Pick an ip address and enter it into the IP Address box. The ip address you choose should be very similar to the router's ip addres. Only the last number of the ip address should be different. If the router's ip address is 192.168.1.1, I might choose 192.168.1.10. The ip address you choose should end with a number between 1 and 254, and should not be the same as the router's ip address. Every device that connects to your network needs to have it's own ip address.

Put the subnet mask we previously found in the subnet mask section. The default gateway should go into the Default gateway box. Enter the dns servers we prevoiusly found into the two DNS Server boxes. Click okay all the way out of this menu.

If you find that you can not pull up webpages, the problem is most likely the dns numbers you entered. Give your ISP a call, and they will be able to tell you which dns servers to use. This is a question they answer all of the time. They will be able to tell you what you should use right away.

That's it you should be done! If you can't connect to the internet go back and change your configuration back to what it originally was.

Gaming Machine

2008-10-06T12:06:00.000-07:00

If you consider playing Battlefield 1942 at 2:00 A.M. against a guy online named NukeULater one of life's little pleasures, you have successfully become one of the millions of people hooked by the PC gaming craze. Either you've embraced your newfound gaming lifestyle by modding out your system with fluorescent lights and see-through cases or you've taken a more subtle stance: Your box is simple black, but you still can quote the frame rate in Unreal Tournament, and you overclock in your spare time.

Either way, you undoubtedly want to experience more of the flash and sizzle in your games. "Speed, speed, and more speed" is your mantra, and you want those kick-ass graphics to be crisp. You also wouldn't mind being able to download MP3s, videos, and photos, and to watch DVDs as an ideal way to rest your aching fingers.

If all this talk is whetting your appetite for the ultimate gaming PC, read on.

Features:

A 21-inch or larger CRT or a 19-inch or larger UXGA (1,600-by-1,200) fast LCD (less than 20-ms pixel response time). In the past, only CRTs would suffice for the gamer. But today's fast LCDs are improving. And though CRTs are faster, LCDs are lighter and have more aesthetic appeal. With a monitor in the 15- to 17-inch range, hard-core gamers can cart both PC and monitor to LAN parties.

Windows XP Pro. The benefits of Win XP Pro over Win XP Home include password-protected local file-access control, as well as Remote Desktop, Encrypting File System, Roaming Profiles, SNMP, and Network Monitor.

Klipsch ProMedia GMX D-5.1 speakers. These give you surround sound for gaming and DVD movies. The set includes four stereo surround speakers, one center channel, and one subwoofer.

At least one 160GB, 7,200-rpm SATA hard drive. This is slightly faster than standard IDE, and the thinner cabling is better for airflow. Choose dual SATA RAID hard drives if you can afford them.

A wired keyboard. Make sure yours has customizable keys for first-person shooters or real-time strategy games. Also, there's a slight lag time with a wireless keyboard, which could mean life or death in your game.

A wired optical mouse. Wireless mice have slower response times. Optical means there's no mouse ball to get gummed up.

A Creative Labs Sound Blaster Audigy 2 sound card or integrated 5.1-channel audio on the nVidia nForce2 Gaming or Intel 875P chipset. The Audigy 2 has lots of input/output ports, which are useful for connecting external speakers, MP3 players, microphones, MiniDisc players, and so on.

For gaming die-hards: Choose from joysticks, force-feedback wheels, and many different game pads.

At least six USB 2.0 ports and one FireWire port, plus an NTSC output. You need these to hook up game controllers, printers, external hard drives, DV camcorders, and so on. (Four USB ports and one FireWire port should be on the front.)

The Intel 875P chipset or the nVidia nForce2 Gaming platform (for AMD processors). The newest Intel chipset has a fast 800-MHz FSB, dual-channel DDR400 RAM, integrated SATA RAID, and 8X AGP. Dual-channel DDR doubles the memory bandwidth, and SATA RAID effectively doubles the throughput to your hard drives. The nForce2 Gaming platform features dual DDR400 memory, 8X AGP, and onboard 5.1-channel surround sound.

An 802.11g PCI or USB wireless solution. This will benefit users who play online games but don't want to string Category 5 cable around the house.

Integrated 10/100 Ethernet for wired connectivity.

A chassis as cool as they come. You could always go for basic black with some fluorescent tubing and a see-through window. But if your wallet permits, get the customized auto paint job.

A Sony DRU-500AX DVD±RW drive and a CD-RW drive (for copying directly from disc to disc). Although not paramount to the gaming experience, this drive gives you flexibility in DVD-writable media, so you can create DVDs that are playable in consumer DVD players. This is currently the only drive that writes to both DVD and DVD-RW.

An AMD Athlon XP 3200 or 3-GHz Intel Pentium 4. If you're into modifying your PC by overclocking the chipset to eke out the best gaming performance, choose the AMD chip. If you don't want to tinker under the hood, then the 3-GHz P4 will work just fine.

1GB of DDR400 SDRAM. DDR400 is the fastest memory currently available, and for today's games and those that will come out in the next few years, 1GB should suffice.

An ATI Radeon 9800 Pro with 128MB or more of graphics memory. Gamers want the fastest 3-D gaming card, and right now, this is it.

Multimedia Dream Machine

2008-10-06T11:36:00.000-07:00

You're the person who brings a digital camera along to every birthday, reunion, and dinner party. You then spend your precious weekend hours painstakingly removing red-eye, unsightly telephone poles, even double chins from the photos you've taken. By Monday morning, they're sparkling and ready to be e-mailed to friends and family or posted for viewing on your Web site. Or maybe you're the type who runs around with a camcorder, dreaming of creating the next Memento from your basement. Whether you're an old hand or a recent convert to the digital multimedia explosion, you have at least once edited a still image or a digital video and converted a VHS tape to a digital format. Sound is of equal importance, for your video editing as well as your MP3s; you have enough of those to warrant your own radio station.

The multimedia maven is in you. Here's the perfect system to satisfy your creative side.

Features:

Windows XP Pro. Even though the PC may be used at home, we recommend Win XP Pro over Win XP Home. Win XP Pro provides password-protected local file-access control, as well as Remote Desktop, Encrypting File System, Roaming Profiles, SNMP, and Network Monitor.

The Sony DRU-500AX DVD±RW drive and a CD-RW drive (for copying directly from disc to disc). This gives you flexibility in writable DVD media, so you can create DVDs that are playable in consumer DVD players. The Sony unit is currently the only drive that supports both DVD and DVD-RW.

A 21-inch or larger CRT. This is a must. Add a 15-inch XGA (1,024-by-768) LCD for toolbars and palettes if you are a true multimedia/graphics enthusiast.

A 3-GHz Pentium 4 or better. Many multimedia applications, such as Adobe Photoshop, Windows Media Encoder, and 3ds max, are optimized to work with the P4. Hyper-Threading, found on the 3-GHz and 3.06-GHz P4, can also benefit users who run an antivirus program while rendering graphics in the background, for example.

A Wacom tablet for precise photo retouching.

A wired keyboard, preferably with customizable keys.

An optical mouse.

At least six USB 2.0 and two FireWire ports (four USB and one FireWire on the front panel), plus an NTSC output. A card reader that supports CompactFlash, Memory Stick, MultiMediaCard, Secure Digital, SmartMedia, and xD formats on the front panel is a plus for digital camera buffs.

Two Seagate Barracuda 120GB 7,200-rpm SATA V hard drives in a RAID 0 configuration. RAID 0 effectively doubles hard drive throughput, giving you much faster access as well as faster load and save times for applications and large files. And 7,200-rpm drives are more useful when you are editing and saving graphics.

The ATI Radeon 9500 Pro, nVidia GeForce4 Ti 4200, or Matrox Parhelia, all with 128MB of graphics memory. 3-D performance is not as important to 2-D functions like photos and video editing. Save a little money with one of these cards over a top-of-the-line card (such as the nVidia GeForce FX 5800 Ultra or the ATI Radeon 9800 Pro). All three support dual monitors, and the Matrox Parhelia supports three simultaneous displays.

2GB of DDR400 SDRAM. DDR400 is the fastest memory currently available, and to work with huge video files you'll need 2GB.

The Intel 875P chipset. The newest Intel chipset has a fast 800-MHz front-side bus, dual-channel DDR 400 RAM, integrated SATA RAID, and 8X AGP. Dual-channel DDR doubles the memory bandwidth, and SATA RAID effectively doubles hard drive throughput.

Integrated 10/100/1,000 Ethernet for wired connectivity (LAN or broadband).

The Klipsch ProMedia 2.1 Star Wars Limited Edition speakers or any quality speakers with a subwoofer.

The Creative Labs Sound Blaster Audigy 2 sound card or integrated 5.1-channel audio on the 875P chipset. The Audigy 2 has an abundance of input/output ports, which are useful for connecting external speakers, an MP3 player, microphones, a MiniDisc player, or other audio devices.

Perfect Add-Ons:

For on-the-spot printing, a photo printer, such as the Canon S900 Color Bubble Jet Printer.

Adobe Photoshop Elements 2.0 ($99 list). This is a must-have program for the photographer who has outgrown basic digital image-editing programs but doesn't need the advanced features in higher-end professional programs such as Adobe Photoshop 7.0 ($609).

Pinnacle Studio 8 ($99 list). This is the perfect video application for the perfect multimedia PC. Videography is a challenging hobby, but Pinnacle Studio includes strong features and smart tools for capturing an audience with entertaining videos.

The Perfect PC

2008-10-06T10:59:00.000-07:00

The machine of your dreams—whether it's a home theater system, a high-end gaming PC, a budget desktop, or a lightweight, travel-friendly notebook—awaits you. We recommend the exact components that make up the perfect PC for ten types of users, as well as including a list of sample, real-world systems that fill the bill.


Figures 1-2. Undoing the screws on your PC case.

Figure 3. Opening the case of your PC.

Computers World

installing intel processor socket 775

Installing Pentium 4 Processor in the 478-pin

Motherboard Power Connectors

How to Set Jumpers

How To Replace The CMOS Battery In Your PC

Instructions:

Tips:

Access/Enter Motherboard BIOS

Bios Suppliers

Keyboard Commands

Computer Vendor

Keyboard Commands

Motherboards Setup & Installation

Motherboard

Motherboard

[edit] CPU sockets

[edit] Integrated peripherals

[edit] Peripheral card slots

[edit] Temperature and reliability

[edit] Form factor

[edit] Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire

[edit] History

[edit] Bootstrapping using the BIOS

Increasing LAN speed

10 Tips for Wireless Home Network Security

1. Change Default Administrator Passwords (and Usernames)

2. Turn on (Compatible) WPA / WEP Encryption

3. Change the Default SSID

4. Enable MAC Address Filtering

5. Disable SSID Broadcast

6. Do Not Auto-Connect to Open Wi-Fi Networks

7. Assign Static IP Addresses to Devices

8. Enable Firewalls On Each Computer and the Router

9. Position the Router or Access Point Safely

10. Turn Off the Network During Extended Periods of Non-Use

Router

4 steps to set up your home wireless network Router

Network switch

Function

THE BASICS OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE

BRIEF OVER VIEW OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE ADVANTAGES OVER COPPER:

2 - Loose-Tube Cable

3 - Tight-Buffered Cable

The Next Generation Internet!

Welcome to the IPv6

What is IPv6?

Where can I get an IPv6 implementation for my system?

What applications run over IPv6 today?

How can I get help with IPv6? Or find out more about it?

MAC address

How to connect 2 systems using LAN

Connecting two computers with a USB cable.

What to choose?

How does it work?

What to do?

CAT 5 Patch Cable

568-B Wiring

568-A Wiring

LAN - Local Area Network

Types of Internet Connections

IP or Internet Protocol

How to set up a static IP address on a Windows Vista computer

Gaming Machine

Multimedia Dream Machine

The Perfect PC